Intergroup leadership

Leadership Quarterly

Volumn 18, Issue 6, 2007, Pages 586-605

  Pittinsky, Todd L ^a   Simon, Stefanie ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Allophilia; Intergroup attitudes; Intergroup relations

Indexed keywords

EID: 36549046465     PISSN: 10489843     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.09.005     Document Type: Article

References (183)

1. Allport G.W. The nature of prejudice (1954), Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA
2. Antonio A.L., Chang M.J., Hakuta K., Kenny D.A., Levin S., and Milem J.F. Effects of racial diversity on complex thinking in college students. Psychological Science 15 (2004) 507-510
3. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control (1997), Freeman, New York
4. Barreto M., and Ellemers N. The impact of respect versus neglect of self-identities on identification and group loyalty. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 629-639
5. Bass B. Leadership and performance beyond expectations (1985), Free Press, New York
6. Bass B.M. Bass and Stogdill's handbook of leadership. (3rd ed.). (1990), Free Press, New York
7. Bass B., and Steidlmeier P. Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior. Leadership Quarterly 10 (1999) 181-217
8. Beck A.T. Images and misperceptions in war: The deadly construction of the ENEMY. In: Beck A.T. (Ed). Prisoners of hate: The cognitive basis of anger, hostility, and violence (1999), HarperCollins, New York 197-224
9. Bekkers F. Threatened leadership and intergroup conflicts. Journal of Peace Research 14 (1977) 223-247
10. Bellamy A. Dirty hands and lesser evils in the war on terror. British Journal of Politics & International Relations 9 (2007) 509-526
11. Berry, J. W., & Bourcier, D. (1989, June). Attitudes toward official bilingualism in Eastern Ontario. Paper presented at the Canadian Psychological Association Meetings, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
12. Berry J.W., Kalin R., and Taylor D.M. Multiculturalism and ethnic attitudes in Canada (1977), Minister of Supply and Services, Ottawa, Canada
13. Bigley G., and Pearce J. Straining for shared meaning in organization science: Problems of trust and distrust. Academy of Management Review 23 (1998) 405-421
14. Bodenhausen G.V., and Moreno K.N. How do I feel about them? The role of affective reactions in intergroup perception. In: Bless H., and Forgas J.P. (Eds). The message within: The role of subjective experience in social cognition and behavior (2000), Psychology Press, London 283-303
15. Brewer M. The social psychology of intergroup relations: Can research inform practice?. Journal of Social Issues 53 (1997) 197-211
16. Brewer M. The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate?. Journal of Social Issues 55 (1999) 429-444
17. Brewer, M. (2007). Evolving perspectives on ingroup-outgroup relations. In T. L. Pittinsky (Chair), Positive intergroup relations. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the 8th annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Memphis, TN.
18. Brewer M.B., and Alexander M.G. Intergroup emotions and images. In: Mackie D.M., and Smith E.R. (Eds). From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups (2003), Psychology Press, New York 209-225
19. Brewer M., and Caporael L. An evolutionary perspective on social identity: Revisiting groups (2006), Psychosocial Press, Madison, CT
20. Brewer M., and Kramer R. Choice behavior in social dilemmas: Effects of social identity, group size, and decision framing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986) 543-549
21. In: Brown A., Kaser M., and Smith (Eds). The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the former Soviet Union. (2nd ed.). (1994), Cambridge University Press, New York
22. Bryson J., and Crosby B. Leadership for the common good (2006), Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
23. Burns J.M. Leadership (1978), Harper & Row, Oxford, UK
24. Byrne D. The attraction paradigm (1971), Academic Press, New York
25. Cacioppo J.T., and Berntson G.G. Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates. Psychological Bulletin 115 (1994) 401-424
26. Cameron, J., & Berry, J. W. (1990, April). Intergroup attitudes: Self-esteem and threats to identity. Paper presented at the Canadian Psychological Association Meeting, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
27. Campbell D.T. Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science 3 (1958) 14-25
28. Campbell D.T. Ethnocentric and other altruistic motives. In: Levine D. (Ed). Nebraska symposium on motivation (1965), University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, NE
29. Carnevale P.J., and Pruitt D.G. Negotiation in social conflict. (2nd ed.). (2000), Open University Press, Buckingham, UK
30. Castano E., Sacchi S., and Gries P.H. The perception of the other in international relations: Evidence for the polarizing effect of entitativity. Political Psychology 24 (2003) 449-468
31. Choi J. A motivational theory of charismatic leadership: Envisioning, empathy, and empowerment. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Study 13 (2006) 24-37
32. Conger J., Kanungo R., and Menon S. Charismatic leadership and follower effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior 21 (2000) 747-767
33. Coser L. The functions of social conflict (1956), Free Press, New York
34. Crisp R.J., and Hewstone M. Multiple categorization and implicit intergroup bias: Differential category dominance and the positive-negative asymmetry effect. European Journal of Social Psychology 31 (2001) 45-62
35. Dasgupta N., and Rivera L.M. From automatic antigay prejudice to behavior: The moderating role of conscious beliefs about gender and behavioral control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006) 268-280
36. De Cremer D., and Tyler T. The effects of trust in authority and procedural fairness on cooperation. Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007) 639-649
37. De Cremer D., Tyler T., and den Ouden N. Managing cooperation via procedural fairness: The mediating influence of self-other merging. Journal of Economic Psychology 26 (2005) 393-406
38. De Cremer D., van Dijke M., and Bos A.E.R. Leader's procedural justice affecting identification and trust. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 27 (2006) 554-565
39. De Cremer D., and Van Knippenberg D. How do leaders promote cooperation? The effects of charisma and procedural fairness. Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (2002) 858-866
40. Deschamps J.C., and Doise W. Crossed category memberships in intergroup relations. In: Tajfel T.H. (Ed). Differentiation between social groups (1978), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 141-158
41. Deutsch M. The resolution of conflict (1973), Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
42. Deutsch M., and Krauss R.M. The effect of threat upon interpersonal bargaining. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61 (1960) 181-189
43. Dienstbier R.A. Positive and negative prejudice: Interactions of prejudice with race and social desirability. Journal of Personality 38 (1970) 198-215
44. Dijker A.J. Emotional reactions to ethnic minorities. European Journal of Social Psychology 17 (1987) 305-325
45. Dobbins G., and Zaccaro S. The effects of group cohesion and leader behavior on subordinate satisfaction. Group & Organization Studies 11 (1986) 203-219
46. Dovidio J.F., Gaertner S.L., and Lamoreaux M.J. In: Pittinsky T.L. (Ed). Crossing the divide: Intergroup leadership in a world of difference (2007), Harvard Business School Press, Boston
47. Dowd M. Liberties: The man in the mirror. The New York Times (1996, September 12) A23
48. Duck J.M., and Fielding K.S. Leaders and subgroups: One of us or one of them?. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 2 (1999) 203-230
49. Duck J., and Fielding K. Leaders and their treatment of subgroups: Implications for evaluations of the leader and the superordinate group. European Journal of Social Psychology 33 (2003) 387-401
50. Duckitt J., Callaghan J., and Wagner C. Group identification and outgroup attitudes in four South African ethnic groups: A multidimensional approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005) 633-646
51. Eggins R., Haslam S., and Reynolds K. Social identity and negotiation: Subgroup representation and superordinate consensus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 887-899
52. European Network Against Racism (ENAR). About ENAR (2007). http://www.enar-eu.org/en/about/ Retrieved September 4, 2007, from http://www.enar-eu.org/en/about/
53. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA). Welcome to the website of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2007). http://fra.europa.eu/fra/index.php Retrieved September 4, 2007, from http://fra.europa.eu/fra/index.php
54. Festinger L. A theory of social comparison process. Human Relations 7 (1954) 117-140
55. Fisher, R. J. (2000). Intergroup conflict. InM. Deutsch, P. T. Coleman, & E. C. Marcus (Eds.), The handbook of conflict resolution: Theory and practice (2nd ed., pp. 176-196). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
56. Forsyth D.R. Group dynamics. (4th ed.). (2006), Thomson/Wadsworth, Belmont, CA
57. Fox W.M. Group reaction to two types of conference leadership. Human Relations 10 (1957) 279-289
58. Fox-Wolfgramm S.J., Boal K.B., and Hunt J.G. Organizational adaptation to institutional change: A comparative study of first-order change in prospector and defender banks. Administrative Science Quarterly 43 (1998) 87-126
59. Frederickson G.M. Models of American ethnic relations: A historical perspective. In: Prentice D.A., and Miller D.T. (Eds). Cultural divides: Understanding and overcoming group conflict (1999), Russell Sage Foundation, New York 23-34
60. Fredrickson B.L. What good are positive emotions?. Review of General Psychology 2 (1998) 300-319
61. Fredrickson B.L. The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist 56 (2001) 218-226
62. Gaertner S.L., and Dovidio J.F. The aversive form of racism. In: Dovidio J.F., and Gaertner S.L. (Eds). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (1986), Academic Press, San Diego, CA 61-89
63. Gaertner S.L., Dovidio J.F., Anastasio P.A., Bachman B.A., and Rust M.C. The common ingroup identity model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup bias. In: Stroebe W., and Hewstone M. (Eds). European review of social psychology Vol. 4 (1993), Wiley, London 1-26
64. Gaertner S.L., Dovidio J.F., Banker B.S., Houlette M., Johnson K.M., and McGlynn E.A. Reducing intergroup conflict: From superordinate goals to decategorization, recategorization, and mutual differentiation. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 4 (2000) 98-114
65. Gaertner S.L., Dovidio J.F., Nier J.A., Ward C.M., and Banker B.S. Across cultural divides: The value of a superordinate identity (1999), Russell Sage Foundation, New York
66. Gaertner S., Mann J., Dovidio J., Murrell A., and Pomare M. How does cooperation reduce intergroup bias?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990) 692-704
67. Gaertner S., Mann J., Murrell A., and Dovidio J. Reducing intergroup bias: The benefits of recategorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 (1989) 239-249
68. Gaertner L., and Schopler J. Perceived ingroup entitativity and intergroup bias: An interconnection of self and others. European Journal of Social Psychology 28 (1998) 963-980
69. Gibson J.L. Do strong group identities fuel intolerance? Evidence from the South African case. Political Psychology 27 (2006) 665-705
70. Glazer N., and Moynihan D.P. Beyond the melting pot (1970), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
71. Goethals G.R. Presidential leadership. Annual Review of Psychology 56 (2005) 545-570
72. Gordon M. Assimilation in American life: The role of race, religion, and national origins (1964), Oxford University Press, New York
73. Haddock G., Zanna M.P., and Esses V.M. Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1993) 1105-1118
74. Hancock C.L. Cicero versus Machiavelli: Does the end justify the means?. Contemporary Philosophy 16 (1994) 8-28
75. Hermann M.G., and Hagan J.D. International decision making: Leadership matters. Foreign Policy 110 (1998) 124-137
76. Hermann M., and Kegley J. Ballots, a barrier against the use of bullets and bombs. Journal of Conflict Resolution 40 (1996) 436-459
77. Herrmann R.K., Voss J.F., Schooler T.Y.E., and Ciarrochi J. Images in international relations: An experimental test of cognitive schemata. International Studies Quarterly 41 (1997) 403-433
78. Hewstone M., and Brown R. Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective. In: Hewstone M., and Brown R. (Eds). Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (1986), Blackwell, Oxford, UK 1-44
79. Hickman G. Organizations of hope: Leading the way to transformation, social action, and profitability (2004), Jossey-Bass, San Francisco
80. Hinkle S., and Brown R. Intergroup comparisons and social identity: Some links and lacunae. In: Abrams D., and Hogg M. (Eds). Social identity theory: Construction and critical advances (1990), Harvester Wheatsheaf, London 48-70
81. Ho C., and Jackson J.W. Attitudes toward Asian Americans: Theory and measurement. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 31 (2001) 1553-1581
82. Hogg M.A. A social identity theory of leadership. Personality and Social Psychology Review 5 (2001) 184-200
83. Hornsey M.J., and Hogg M.A. Assimilation and diversity: An integrative model of subgroup relations. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4 (2000) 143-156
84. Hornsey M.J., and Hogg M.A. Subgroup relations: A comparison of mutual intergroup differentiation and common ingroup identity models of prejudice reduction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000) 242-256
85. Hornsey M.J., and Hogg M.A. The effects of status on subgroup relations. British Journal of Social Psychology 41 (2002) 203-218
86. House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., Gupta, V. & GLOBE Associates (Eds.). (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
87. Hoyt, C. L., & Chemers, M. M. (in press). Social stigma and leadership. In C. L. Hoyt, G. R. Goethals, & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.). Social psychology and leadership. New York: Praeger.
88. Hugenberg K., and Bodenhausen G.V. Ambiguity in social categorization: The role of prejudice and facial affect in race categorization. Psychological Science 15 (2004) 342-345
89. Hughes J., Campbell A., Hewstone M., and Cairns E. Segregation in Northern Ireland: Implications for community relations policy. Policy Studies 28 (2007) 35-53
90. Hunt J.G., Boal K.B., and Sorenson R.L. Top management leadership: Inside the black box. Leadership Quarterly 1 (1990) 41-65
91. Huo Y.J., Molina L.E., Sawahata R., and Deang J.M. Leadership and the management of conflicts in diverse groups: Why acknowledging versus neglecting subgroup identity matters. European Journal of Social Psychology 35 (2005) 237-254
92. Jackson J.W. Realistic group conflict theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical literature. Psychological Record 43 (1993) 395-495
93. Janis I.L. Counteracting the adverse effect of concurrence-seeking in policy-planning groups: Theory and research perspectives. In: Brandstatter H., Davis J.H., and Stocker-Kreichgauer G. (Eds). Group decision making (1982), Academic Press, New York 311-313
94. Jetten J., Duck J., Terry D.J., and O'Brien A. Being attuned to intergroup differences in mergers: The role of aligned leaders for low-status groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 1194-1201
95. Johnston R., Poulsen M., and Forrest J. Ethnic and racial segregation in U.S. metropolitan areas, 1980-2000. Urban Affairs Review 42 (2007) 479-504
96. Jung D.I., and Sosik J.J. Transformational leadership in work groups. Small Group Research 33 (2002) 313-336
97. Katz N. Sports teams as a model for workplace teams: Lessons and liabilities. Academy of Management Executive 3 (2001) 56-69
98. Kellerman B. Bad leadership: What it is, how it happens, why it matters (2004), Harvard Business School Press, Boston
99. Khalilzad Z. U.S. envoy outlines political blueprint for Iraq (2006), U.S. Dept. of State. http://usinfo.state.gov/mena/Archive/2006/Feb/13-462544.html Retrieved August 21, 2007, from http://usinfo.state.gov/mena/Archive/2006/Feb/13-462544.html
100. Kosterman R., and Feshbach S. Toward a measure of patriotic and nationalistic attitudes. Political Psychology 10 (1989) 257-274
101. Kramer R.M. Divergent realities and convergent disappointments in the hierarchic relation: Trust and the intuitive auditor at work. In: Kramer R.M., and Tyler T.R. (Eds). Trust in organizations: Frontiers of theory and research (1996), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA 216-245
102. Kramer, R. M. (2007). Leadership and trust-building in intergroup negotiations: Structures, processes, and outcomes. In T. L. Pittinsky (Ed.). Crossing the divide: Intergroup leadership in a world of difference. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
103. Kramer R., and Brewer M. Effects of group identity on resource use in a simulated commons dilemma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984) 1044-1057
104. LaFromboise T.D., and Rowe W. Skills training for bicultural competence: Rationale and application. Journal of Counseling Psychology 30 (1983) 589-595
105. Larson M.J. Low-power contributions in multilateral negotiations: A framework analysis. Negotiation Journal 19 (2003) 133-149
106. Lawler E.E. Leading a virtuous-spiral organization. Leader to Leader 32 (2004) 32-40
107. Lerner J.S., Gonzalez R.M., Small D.A., and Fischhoff B. Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: A national field experiment. Psychological Science 14 (2003) 144-150
108. Lewicki R.J., McAllister D.J., and Bies R.J. Trust and distrust: New relationships and realities. Academy of Management Review 23 (1998) 438-458
109. Lewin K. Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers (1951), Harper, New York
110. Lord R.G., Foti R.J., and Phillips J.S. A theory of leadership categorization. In: Hunt J.G., Sekaran U., and Schriesheim C. (Eds). Leadership: Beyond establishment views (1982), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, IL 104-121
111. Lorenzi P. Managing for the common good: Prosocial leadership. Organizational Dynamics 33 (2004) 282-291
112. Mackie D.M., Devos T., and Smith E.R. Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000) 602-616
113. Maitner A.T., Mackie D.M., and Smith E.R. Evidence for the regulatory function of intergroup emotion: Emotional consequences of implemented or impeded intergroup action tendencies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42 (2006) 720-728
114. Markides K., and Cohn S. External conflict/internal cohesion: A reevaluation of an old theory. American Sociological Review 47 (1982) 88-98
115. Miller D.A., Smith E.R., and Mackie D.M. Effects of intergroup contact and political predispositions on prejudice: Role of intergroup emotions. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 7 (2004) 221-237
116. Moghaddam F.M., and Solliday E.A. "Balanced multiculturalism" and the challenge of peaceful coexistence in pluralistic societies. Psychology and Developing Societies 3 (1991) 51-71
117. Montoya R.M., and Horton R.S. On the importance of cognitive evaluation as a determinant of interpersonal attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 696-712
118. Mummendey M., and Wenzel M. Social discrimination and tolerance in intergroup relations: Reactions to intergroup difference. Personality and Social Psychology Review 3 (1999) 158-174
119. Nelson T.D. The psychology of prejudice. (2nd ed.). (2006), Pearson, Boston
120. Northouse P.G. Leadership: Theory and practice. (4th ed.). (2007), Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
121. Nye J.S. East African economic integration. Journal of Modern African Studies 1 (1963) 475-502
122. Nye J.S. Pan-Africanism and east African integration (1967), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
123. Nye J.S. Understanding international conflict: An introduction to theory and history (2007), Longman, New York
124. Oberschall A. The manipulation of ethnicity: From ethnic cooperation to violence and war in Yugoslavia. Ethnic and Racial Studies 23 (2000) 982-1001
125. Park B., and Judd C. Rethinking the link between categorization and prejudice within the social cognition perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review 9 (2005) 108-130
126. Park B., and Ryan C.S. Social categorization and the representation of variability information. In: Stroebe W., and Hewstone M. (Eds). European Review of Social Psychology Vol. 2 (1991), Wiley, Chichester, UK 211-245
127. Paskevich D., Brawley L., Dorsch K., and Widmeyer W. Relationship between collective efficacy and team cohesion: Conceptual and measurement issues. Group Dynamics, Theory, Research, and Practice 3 (1999) 210-222
128. Pettigrew T.F. The intergroup contact hypothesis reconsidered. In: Hewstone M., and Brown R. (Eds). Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters (1986), Basil Blackwell, New York 169-195
129. Pettigrew T. Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology 49 (1998) 65-85
130. Pettigrew T., and Tropp L. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006) 751-783
131. Pfeifer D.M., Love M., and Jackson B. Indigenous leadership at the crossroads: The Hui Taumata as a case study of allophilia. In: Huber N.S., and Harvey M. (Eds). Leadership at the Crossroads (2006), International Leadership Association, College Park, MD
132. Phillips S.T., and Ziller R.C. Toward a theory and measure of the nature of nonprejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1997) 420-434
133. Pittinsky T.L. Allophilia: A framework for intergroup leadership. In: Huber N., and Walker M. (Eds). Building leadership bridges: Emergent models of global leadership (2005), International Leadership Association, College Park, MD 34-49
134. Pittinsky, T. L. (2007). The science and practice of intergroup leadership. In T. L. Pittinsky (Ed.), Crossing the divide: Intergroup leadership in a world of difference. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
135. Pittinsky, T. L., & Montoya, R. M. (in press). Is valuing equality enough? Equality values, allophilia, and social policy support for multiracial individuals. Journal of Social Issues.
136. Pittinsky T.L., Rosenthal S.A., Bacon L.M., Montoya R.M., and Zhu W. National Leadership Index 2006: A national study of confidence in leadership (2006), Center for Public Leadership, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Cambridge, MA
137. Pittinsky, T. L., Rosenthal, S. A., & Montoya, R. M. (2007). The allophilia scale: Development and validation of a measure of positive intergroup attitudes. Unpublished manuscript.
138. Pittinsky T.L., Shih M., and Ambady N. Identity adaptiveness: Affect across multiple identities. Journal of Social Issues 55 (1999) 503-518
139. Platow M., Hoar S., Reid S., Harley K., and Morrison D. Endorsement of distributively fair and unfair leaders in interpersonal and intergroup situations. European Journal of Social Psychology 27 (1997) 465-494
140. Platow M., O'Connell A., Shave R., and Hanning P. Social evaluations of fair and unfair allocators in interpersonal and intergroup situations. British Journal of Social Psychology 34 (1995) 363-381
141. Price T. Understanding ethical failures in leadership (2006), Cambridge University Press, New York
142. Pruitt D.G., and Rubin J.Z. Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement (1986), Random House, New York
143. Rabbie J., and Bekkers F. Threatened leadership and intergroup competition. European Journal of Social Psychology 8 (1978) 9-20
144. Ratcliff, J., & Pittinsky, T. L. (2007). Unmixed positive regard: How warmth and competence stereotypes lead to outgroup support. Manuscript in preparation.
145. Reicher S.D., Haslam S.A., and Platow M. The new psychology of leadership. Scientific American Mind 8 (2007) 22-29
146. Richeson J.A., and Nussbaum R.J. The impact of multiculturalism versus color-blindness on racial bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40 (2004) 417-423
147. Ripsman N. Two stages of transition from a region of war to a region of peace: Realist transition and liberal endurance. International Studies Quarterly 49 (2005) 669-694
148. Roosevelt T.R. Americanism. Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia. (2nd ed.). (1989), Meckler, Westport, CT (Original work published 1916)
149. Rosenbaum M.E. The repulsion hypothesis: On the nondevelopment of relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (1986) 1156-1166
150. Rost J.C. Leadership for the twenty-first century (1991), Praeger, New York
151. Saunders M.N.K., and Thornhill A. Trust and mistrust in organizations: An exploration using an organizational justice framework. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 13 (2004) 493-515
152. Saville-Troike M. The development of bilingual and bicultural competence in young children (1981), Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, Urbana, IL (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 206 376)
153. Shamir B., Zakay E., Breinin E., and Popper M. Correlates of charismatic leader behavior in military units: Subordinates' attitudes, unit characteristics, and superiors' appraisals of leader performance. Academy of Management Journal 41 (1998) 387-409
154. Sherif M. The psychology of social norms (1966), Harper Torchbooks, Oxford, UK
155. Sherif M., Harvey O.J., White B.J., Hood W.R., and Sherif C.W. Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment (1961), University of Oklahoma Book Exchange, Norman, OK
156. Sherif M., and Sherif C.W. Research on intergroup relations. In: Austin W.G., and Worchel S. (Eds). The social psychology of intergroup relations (1979), Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA
157. Shih M., Pittinsky T.L., and Ambady N. Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science 10 (1999) 80-83
158. Sin C.H. The politics of ethnic integration in Singapore: Malay "regrouping" as an ideological construct. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 27 (2003) 527-544
159. Singh R., Ho L., Tan H., and Bell P. Attitudes, personal evaluations, cognitive evaluation and interpersonal attraction: On the direct, indirect and reverse-causal effects. British Journal of Social Psychology 46 (2007) 19-42
160. Solomon S., Greenberg J., and Pyszczynski T. Terror management theory of self-esteem. In: Snyder C.R., and Forsyth D.R. (Eds). Handbook of social and clinical psychology: The health perspective (1991), Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY 21-40
161. Sommers S.R. On racial diversity and group decision making: Identifying multiple effects of racial composition on jury deliberations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006) 597-612
162. Stangor C., Sullivan L.A., and Ford T.E. Affective and cognitive determinant of prejudice. Social Cognition 9 (1991) 359-380
163. Sternberg R. A systems model of leadership: WICS. American Psychologist 62 (2007) 34-42
164. Sumner W.G. Folkways (1906), Ginn, Boston
165. Tajfel H., and Turner J.C. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In: Austin W.G., and Worchel S. (Eds). The social psychology of intergroup relations (1979), Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA 33-48
166. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), The psychology of intergroup relations (2nd ed., pp. 7-24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
167. Taylor D.M., and Lambert W.E. The meaning of multiculturalism in a culturally diverse urban American area. Journal of Social Psychology 136 (1996) 727-740
168. Thibaut J., and Walker L. Procedural justice (1975), Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
169. Transue J.E. Identity salience, identity acceptance, and racial policy attitudes: American national identity as a uniting force. American Journal of Political Science 51 (2007) 78-91
170. Turner J.C. Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior. In: Lawler E.J. (Ed). Advances of group processes (1985), JAI, Greenwich, CT
171. Tyler T.R. Social justice: Outcome and procedure. International Journal of Psychology 35 (2000) 117-125
172. Tyler T.R. Leadership and cooperation in groups. American Behavioral Scientist 45 (2002) 769-782
173. Tyler T.R., and Blader S. The group engagement model: Procedural justice, social identity, and cooperative behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review 7 (2003) 349-361
174. Tyler T.R., and De Cremer D. Process-based leadership: Fair procedures and reactions to organizational change. Leadership Quarterly 16 (2005) 529-545
175. Ulrich J., Christ O., and Schlüter E. Merging on Mayday: Subgroup and superordinate identification as joint moderators of threat effects in the context of European Union's expansion. European Journal of Social Psychology 36 (2006) 857-876
176. Urban L.M., and Miller N. A theoretical analysis of crossed categorization effects: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998) 894-908
177. Waldzus S., Mummendey A., Wenzel M., and Weber U. Towards tolerance: Representations of superordinate categories and perceived ingroup prototypicality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (2003) 31-47
178. Waltz K.N. Theory of international politics (1979), McGraw-Hill, New York
179. Walumbwa F., Wang P., Lawler J., and Shi K. The role of collective efficacy in the relations between transformational leadership and work outcomes. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 77 (2004) 515-530
180. Weinberg R., and McDermott M. A comparative analysis of sport and business organizations: Factors perceived critical for organizational success. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 14 (2002) 282-289
181. Williams R. The reduction of intergroup tensions: A survey of research on problems of ethnic, racial, and religious group relations (1947), Social Science Research Council, New York
182. Wolsko C., Park B., Judd C., and Bachelor J. Intergroup contact: Effects on group evaluations and perceived variability. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 6 (2003) 93-110
183. Zangwill I. The melting-pot. In: Zangwill I. (Ed). The melting pot drama in four acts (2005), Kessinger, Whitefish, MT (Original work published 1908)