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Volumn 14, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 795-815

The technocratic politics of administrative participation: Case studies of Singapore and Vietnam

Author keywords

Authoritarian; Political participation; Singapore; State; Technocratic politics; Vietnam

Indexed keywords

AUTHORITARIANISM; NATION STATE; POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY; POLITICAL IDEOLOGY; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION;

EID: 36549009559     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: 1743890X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510340701635662     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (47)

References (90)
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    • Hereafter, instead of the awkward reference to FBU/REACH, the single acronym of FBU will be deployed until the point in the discussion where we arrive at the recent name change
    • Hereafter, instead of the awkward reference to FBU/REACH, the single acronym of FBU will be deployed until the point in the discussion where we arrive at the recent name change.
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    • State-Society Relations and Political Opposition in Singapore
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    • Goh Chok Tong, 'A Nation of Excellence', Address at the Alumni International Singapore, 1 December 1986, Singapore: Ministry of Communications and Information, p. 7.
    • Goh Chok Tong, 'A Nation of Excellence', Address at the Alumni International Singapore, 1 December 1986, Singapore: Ministry of Communications and Information, p. 7.
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    • Speech by Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Harvard Club of Singapore
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    • Lee Hsien Loong, 'Speech by Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Harvard Club of Singapore's 35th Anniversary Dinner', 6 January 2004, available at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/ APCITY/UNPAN015426.pdf (accessed 27 October, 2006).
    • (2004) s 35th Anniversary Dinner
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    • 36549018309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ho observed about the original rationale of the Unit that: 'Its most important function, however, is to perform the role of political socialisation. It aimed at explaining policies as well as correcting public misconceptions or misinformation'. Ho Khai Leong, The Politics of Policy-Making in Singapore (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 58.
    • Ho observed about the original rationale of the Unit that: 'Its most important function, however, is to perform the role of political socialisation. It aimed at explaining policies as well as correcting public "misconceptions" or "misinformation"'. Ho Khai Leong, The Politics of Policy-Making in Singapore (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 58.
  • 10
    • 36549035471 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The full range of feedback channels included: E-Consultation Papers; e-Polls; Discussion Forums; Dialogues Sessions; Tea Sessions; Public Forums; Straw Polls; and Feedback Groups.
    • The full range of feedback channels included: E-Consultation Papers; e-Polls; Discussion Forums; Dialogues Sessions; Tea Sessions; Public Forums; Straw Polls; and Feedback Groups.
  • 11
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    • Feedback Unit, Building Bridges: The Story of Feedback Unit (Singapore: Feedback Unit, Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2004), p. 109.
    • Feedback Unit, Building Bridges: The Story of Feedback Unit (Singapore: Feedback Unit, Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2004), p. 109.
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    • Lee note 7
    • Lee (note 7).
  • 13
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    • Reflecting the technocratic assumptions underlying the FBU's relationship to politics, professional bodies and institutes are able to nominate Supervisory Panel members for the minister's consideration.
    • Reflecting the technocratic assumptions underlying the FBU's relationship to politics, professional bodies and institutes are able to nominate Supervisory Panel members for the minister's consideration.
  • 14
    • 36549016799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • When asked by a reporter about the feasibility of a civil society group taking over the FBU's role, the then Chairman of the Feedback Unit Wang Kai Yuen observed: 'For the Unit to function well, we need to build trust between the Unit and the rest of the Government. The issue does not arise now because the Feedback Unit is part of the Government.' The Straits Times, 'Mr Feedback: You Have His Ear Even When You Mouth Off', 28 January 2005.
    • When asked by a reporter about the feasibility of a civil society group taking over the FBU's role, the then Chairman of the Feedback Unit Wang Kai Yuen observed: 'For the Unit to function well, we need to build trust between the Unit and the rest of the Government. The issue does not arise now because the Feedback Unit is part of the Government.' The Straits Times, 'Mr Feedback: You Have His Ear Even When You Mouth Off', 28 January 2005.
  • 15
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    • Feedback Unit (note 10), p. 51.
    • Feedback Unit (note 10), p. 51.
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    • 36549090212 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • By way of example, in November 2006, the REACH website posted by the Ministry of Home Affairs consultation paper on the Proposed Penal Code Amendments for general public comment. Respondents are required to supply information about their gender, age group and nationality and can choose to make their comments visible to other members of the public or not.
    • By way of example, in November 2006, the REACH website posted by the Ministry of Home Affairs consultation paper on the Proposed Penal Code Amendments for general public comment. Respondents are required to supply information about their gender, age group and nationality and can choose to make their comments visible to other members of the public or not.
  • 17
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    • Feedback Unit (note 10), p. 88.
    • Feedback Unit (note 10), p. 88.
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    • 36549054861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The results may be published online or released to the media, depending on what the government department or agency decides. These are often part of a wider exercise in straw polling that receives feedback to questionnaires via fax and normal mail as well
    • The results may be published online or released to the media, depending on what the government department or agency decides. These are often part of a wider exercise in straw polling that receives feedback to questionnaires via fax and normal mail as well.
  • 19
    • 36549085744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • accessed 4 June 2006
    • Feedback Unit website http://app.feedback.gov.sg/asp/abo/abo03.asp (accessed 4 June 2006).
    • Feedback Unit website
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    • 36549055324 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 8 in 10 Singaporeans Happy With Progress Package Goodies
    • 20 April
    • Erica Tay, '8 in 10 Singaporeans Happy With Progress Package Goodies', The Straits Times, 20 April 2006.
    • (2006) The Straits Times
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    • 36549051369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See 'Young Singaporeans More Open to Migrating' (posted: 08/08/2006 08:51:49AM), which read: 'A recent survey of 2,548 teenagers from China, Japan, Malaysia, India and Singapore revealed that Singaporean teenagers were more open to the idea of emigrating than their counterparts in these countries. More than half (53%) the Singaporean teenagers surveyed would consider emigrating, compared to only 28% of Malaysians and 39% of Indians. The main reasons cited include stress and the economic lures of foreign countries. What are your thoughts on these survey findings? Why do you think our young people are so open to emigrating? What can we do to instil a greater sense of national pride and rootedness in them?'
    • See 'Young Singaporeans More Open to Migrating' (posted: 08/08/2006 08:51:49AM), which read: 'A recent survey of 2,548 teenagers from China, Japan, Malaysia, India and Singapore revealed that Singaporean teenagers were more open to the idea of emigrating than their counterparts in these countries. More than half (53%) the Singaporean teenagers surveyed would consider emigrating, compared to only 28% of Malaysians and 39% of Indians. The main reasons cited include stress and the economic lures of foreign countries. What are your thoughts on these survey findings? Why do you think our young people are so open to emigrating? What can we do to instil a greater sense of national pride and rootedness in them?'
  • 24
    • 36549071745 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Feedback Unit (note 10), p. 35.
    • Feedback Unit (note 10), p. 35.
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    • Many pre-policy dialogue sessions were held, for example on issues such as the Supplementary Retirement Scheme, Review of Junior College/Upper Secondary Education, Marriage and Procreation Measures, Fourth University, Balanced Billing and Remaking Singapore
    • Many pre-policy dialogue sessions were held, for example on issues such as the Supplementary Retirement Scheme, Review of Junior College/Upper Secondary Education, Marriage and Procreation Measures, Fourth University, Balanced Billing and Remaking Singapore.
  • 26
    • 36549030012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Feedback Unit (note 10), pp. 35-7.
    • Feedback Unit (note 10), pp. 35-7.
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    • 36549053783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interestingly, there is overlap in a descriptive sense between this category and the category of ethnic communities, since the 'heartlanders' concept really encapsulates largely ethnic Chinese sections of the working class - a substantial portion of whom were educated in the Chinese language medium. The concept of 'heartlander' assumes an important ideological function of obscuring the fundamental class nature of the social position of these social strata.
    • Interestingly, there is overlap in a descriptive sense between this category and the category of ethnic communities, since the 'heartlanders' concept really encapsulates largely ethnic Chinese sections of the working class - a substantial portion of whom were educated in the Chinese language medium. The concept of 'heartlander' assumes an important ideological function of obscuring the fundamental class nature of the social position of these social strata.
  • 29
    • 36549046275 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Youth Connect Workshop Report, Feedback Unit, Ministry of Community Development and Sports, Singapore, 2005, p. 10.
    • Youth Connect Workshop Report, Feedback Unit, Ministry of Community Development and Sports, Singapore, 2005, p. 10.
  • 30
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    • Feedback Unit, Closing the Loop (Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2004)
    • Feedback Unit, Closing the Loop (Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2004)
  • 31
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    • Feedback Unit, Shaping Our Home: Turning Ideas Into Reality (Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2005).
    • Feedback Unit, Shaping Our Home: Turning Ideas Into Reality (Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2005).
  • 32
    • 36549045288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For example, the FBU organized four dialogue sessions in 2000 for the Family Policy Unit, Ministry of Community Development and Sports, to gather public feedback on how to enhance the measures to promote marriage and procreation. It resulted in additional measures to those announced already. More opportunities for socializing, easier home ownership and baby bonus schemes were among the additional measures. See Feedback Unit, Closing the Loop (note 29), p. 9.
    • For example, the FBU organized four dialogue sessions in 2000 for the Family Policy Unit, Ministry of Community Development and Sports, to gather public feedback on how to enhance the measures to promote marriage and procreation. It resulted in additional measures to those announced already. More opportunities for socializing, easier home ownership and baby bonus schemes were among the additional measures. See Feedback Unit, Closing the Loop (note 29), p. 9.
  • 33
    • 36549006212 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 2002, the FBU's Economic Development Feedback Group proposed setting up a Ministry of Entrepreneurship or, alternatively, a Minister for Entrepreneurship to drive the entrepreneurship movement. In February 2003, Raymond Lim, the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, and Trade and Industry was appointed as the Minister of State in charge of Entrepreneurship. Ibid, pp. 30-1.
    • In 2002, the FBU's Economic Development Feedback Group proposed setting up a Ministry of Entrepreneurship or, alternatively, a Minister for Entrepreneurship to drive the entrepreneurship movement. In February 2003, Raymond Lim, the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs, and Trade and Industry was appointed as the Minister of State in charge of Entrepreneurship. Ibid, pp. 30-1.
  • 34
    • 36549042670 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Feedback Unit, Shaping Our Home (note 29), p. 65.
    • Feedback Unit, Shaping Our Home (note 29), p. 65.
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    • Feedback Unit, 'Do more to build a cohesive, inclusive and active society', media release, Feedback Unit website, 11 January 2006, available at http://app.feedback.gov.sg/asp/new/new0001.asp?id=1202 (accessed 19 September 2006).
    • Feedback Unit, 'Do more to build a cohesive, inclusive and active society', media release, Feedback Unit website, 11 January 2006, available at http://app.feedback.gov.sg/asp/new/new0001.asp?id=1202 (accessed 19 September 2006).
  • 37
    • 36549020772 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Consultations include focus group discussions through the FBU's consultation portal, straw polls and public forums.
    • Consultations include focus group discussions through the FBU's consultation portal, straw polls and public forums.
  • 38
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    • Community Development; Economic Development; Health; Human Resource Development; Physical development; Political Development; Small-to-Medium Enterprises; and Social Development
    • Community Development; Economic Development; Health; Human Resource Development; Physical development; Political Development; Small-to-Medium Enterprises; and Social Development.
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    • 36549076674 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Feedback Unit, Closing the Loop (note 29), pp. 28-9.
    • Feedback Unit, Closing the Loop (note 29), pp. 28-9.
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    • Singaporeans benefit from Medisave
    • 21 January 2006 at, accessed 6 October
    • 'Singaporeans benefit from Medisave', Channel NewsAsia, 21 January 2006 at http://english.sina.com/life/1/2006/0121/62922.html (accessed 6 October 2007)
    • (2007) Channel NewsAsia
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    • Mediasave usage allowed for outpatient care in four chronic diseases
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    • (2006) Channel NewsAsia
    • Majid, H.A.1
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    • Feedback Unit, Annual Conference of Feedback Groups, 29 January 2005, Pan Pacific Hotel Singapore: Speeches, Transcripts, Ministries' Replies (Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2005).
    • Feedback Unit, Annual Conference of Feedback Groups, 29 January 2005, Pan Pacific Hotel Singapore: Speeches, Transcripts, Ministries' Replies (Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, 2005).
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    • Feedback Unit Political Matters and Media Group, 'Position Paper: Recommendations for Best Practices in Political Governance for Singapore', Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, September 2002, p. 11.
    • Feedback Unit Political Matters and Media Group, 'Position Paper: Recommendations for Best Practices in Political Governance for Singapore', Singapore: Ministry of Community Development and Sports, September 2002, p. 11.
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    • Indeed, it appeared that some of those involved in a 1999 forum on 'Active Citizenship and Political Participation in Singapore' organized by the Think Centre may have been encouraged by Viswa Sadisivan's comments at that meeting. Viswa said that there were multiple paths to influencing public policy and political parties were just one of them. See, Dinesh Naidu and Anbarasu Balarasan, 'Active Citizenship and Politics in Singapore: Exploring Political Expression and Action', 26 November, 1999, available at http://www.ThinkCentre.org/ article.cfm?ArticleIA=80 (accessed 7 January 2005).
    • Indeed, it appeared that some of those involved in a 1999 forum on 'Active Citizenship and Political Participation in Singapore' organized by the Think Centre may have been encouraged by Viswa Sadisivan's comments at that meeting. Viswa said that there were multiple paths to influencing public policy and political parties were just one of them. See, Dinesh Naidu and Anbarasu Balarasan, 'Active Citizenship and Politics in Singapore: Exploring Political Expression and Action', 26 November, 1999, available at http://www.ThinkCentre.org/ article.cfm?ArticleIA=80 (accessed 7 January 2005).
  • 46
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    • The other authors of the draft were National University of Singapore academics Eleanor Wong and Lee Chwee Beng, company director Vincent Chen and Business Times journalist Toh Han Shih
    • The other authors of the draft were National University of Singapore academics Eleanor Wong and Lee Chwee Beng, company director Vincent Chen and Business Times journalist Toh Han Shih.
  • 47
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    • Melvin Tan, 'Opening up?' Melvin Tan 101 blog, 2 May 2004, available at http://www.wp.org.sg/news/hammer_online/07_opening_up.htm (accessed 6 October 2007)
    • Melvin Tan, 'Opening up?' Melvin Tan 101 blog, 2 May 2004, available at http://www.wp.org.sg/news/hammer_online/07_opening_up.htm (accessed 6 October 2007)
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    • Singaporean political activist
    • email correspondence, 28 June
    • James Gomez, 'Singaporean political activist', email correspondence, 28 June 2006.
    • (2006)
    • Gomez, J.1
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    • Gomez note 43
    • Gomez (note 43).
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    • Tan note 43
    • Tan (note 43).
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    • Wang Kai Yueng, Former Head of the Feedback Unit Supervisory Panel, Interview, Singapore, 9 November 2006.
    • Wang Kai Yueng, Former Head of the Feedback Unit Supervisory Panel, Interview, Singapore, 9 November 2006.
  • 52
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    • An active citizenry will help us to build a national consensus, engender a sense of rootedness, and enable the Government to serve the people better
    • Lee asserted that 'one important task of the government will be to promote further civic participation
    • Lee asserted that 'one important task of the government will be to promote further civic participation... An active citizenry will help us to build a national consensus, engender a sense of rootedness, and enable the Government to serve the people better'. See Lee (note 7).
    • See Lee (note 7)
  • 53
    • 36549007164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The attempt to exploit the government's priority objectives may not be adventurous but it is nevertheless evident. The paper contends, for example, that to engender a deep sense of rootedness in Singaporeans, it is imperative that obligations are aligned with inalienable rights' of citizens. The paper also argues for 'a broader definition of citizenship that transcends present resident status, and for all Singaporeans to be able to participate in the election process, which should be treated as an 'inalienable right, Overseas Singaporeans should therefore be able to vote. It also refers to a 'Climate of Fear' revealed in dialogue sessions that they consider 'disturbing, This 'perception of fear needs to be debunked if there is to be wholehearted active participation, The paper was authored by R. Doraisamy, Aslam Sardar, Lau Joon-Nie, Cynthia Tang, Cliff Tan, and Kian Guan
    • The attempt to exploit the government's priority objectives may not be adventurous but it is nevertheless evident. The paper contends, for example, that to engender a deep sense of rootedness in Singaporeans, 'it is imperative that obligations are aligned with inalienable rights' of citizens. The paper also argues for 'a broader definition of citizenship that transcends present resident status', and for all Singaporeans to be able to participate in the election process - which should be treated as an 'inalienable right'. Overseas Singaporeans should therefore be able to vote. It also refers to a 'Climate of Fear' revealed in dialogue sessions that they consider 'disturbing'. This 'perception of fear needs to be debunked if there is to be wholehearted active participation.' The paper was authored by R. Doraisamy, Aslam Sardar, Lau Joon-Nie, Cynthia Tang, Cliff Tan, and Kian Guan.
  • 54
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    • Feedback Unit
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    • Amy Khor, 'Feedback Unit's 21st Anniversary Dinner Speech', 12 October 2006, Pan Pacific Hotel Singapore, REACH website, available at http://app.reach.gov.sg/reach/Default.aspx?tabid=71 (accessed 1 December 2006).
    • (2006) s 21st Anniversary Dinner Speech
    • Khor, A.1
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    • Speech by Mr Lee Hsien Loong, Prime Minister, at the Feedback Unit
    • 12 October, Pan Pacific Hotel Singapore, REACH website, available at, accessed 1 December 2006
    • Lee Hsien Loong, 'Speech by Mr Lee Hsien Loong, Prime Minister, at the Feedback Unit's 21st Anniversary Dinner', 12 October 2006, Pan Pacific Hotel Singapore, REACH website, available at http://app.reach.gov.sg/ reach/Default.aspx?tabid=75 (accessed 1 December 2006).
    • (2006) s 21st Anniversary Dinner
    • Hsien Loong, L.1
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    • Vietnam: The Transition from Central Planning
    • Garry Rodan, Kevin Hewison and Richard Robison eds, 3rd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press
    • Melanie Beresford, 'Vietnam: The Transition from Central Planning', in Garry Rodan, Kevin Hewison and Richard Robison (eds), The Political Economy of Southeast Asia (3rd edition) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 210.
    • (2006) The Political Economy of Southeast Asia , pp. 210
    • Beresford, M.1
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    • Changing Concepts of Socialist Law in Vietnam
    • John Gillespie and Pip Nicholson eds, Canberra: Asia Pacific Press, Australian National University, p
    • John Gillespie, 'Changing Concepts of Socialist Law in Vietnam', in John Gillespie and Pip Nicholson (eds), The Diversity of Legal Change in Socialist China and Vietnam (Canberra: Asia Pacific Press, Australian National University), p. 67.
    • The Diversity of Legal Change in Socialist China and Vietnam , pp. 67
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    • The Politics of State Sector Reform in Vietnam: Contested Agendas and Uncertain Trajectories
    • Martin Painter, 'The Politics of State Sector Reform in Vietnam: Contested Agendas and Uncertain Trajectories', Journal of Development Studies Vol. 41, No. 2 (2005), pp. 261-83.
    • (2005) Journal of Development Studies , vol.41 , Issue.2 , pp. 261-283
    • Painter, M.1
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    • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 'Deepening Democracy and Increasing Popular Participation in Vietnam', UNDP Vietnam Policy Dialogue Paper 2006/1, Hanoi; Vietnam Development Report, 'Governance', Joint Donor Report to the Vietnam Consultative Meeting, Hanoi, 2005
    • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 'Deepening Democracy and Increasing Popular Participation in Vietnam', UNDP Vietnam Policy Dialogue Paper 2006/1, Hanoi; Vietnam Development Report, 'Governance', Joint Donor Report to the Vietnam Consultative Meeting, Hanoi, 2005
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    • Scott Fritzen, 'Beyond Political Will: How Institutional Context Shapes the Implementation of Anti Corruption Policies', Working Paper SPP: 01-06, Singapore: Lee Kwan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore, available at http://www.lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp01_06.pdf (accessed 1 December 2006).
    • Scott Fritzen, 'Beyond "Political Will": How Institutional Context Shapes the Implementation of Anti Corruption Policies', Working Paper SPP: 01-06, Singapore: Lee Kwan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore, available at http://www.lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp01_06.pdf (accessed 1 December 2006).
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    • It is the administrative complaint part of the law that has been the subject of continuous amendment and reform
    • It is the administrative complaint part of the law that has been the subject of continuous amendment and reform.
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    • 36549037376 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vietnam Development Report note 56, p. 79
    • Vietnam Development Report (note 56), p. 79.
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    • UNDP note 56
    • UNDP (note 56).
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    • Ibid., p. 5.
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    • Beresford note 53
    • Beresford (note 53).
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    • Painter note 55
    • Painter (note 55)
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    • Beresford note 53
    • Beresford (note 53).
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    • Painter note 55, p. 263
    • Painter (note 55), p. 263.
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    • Fritzen note 56, p. 7
    • Fritzen (note 56), p. 7.
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    • UNDP note 56
    • UNDP (note 56)
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    • Vietnam Law and Legal Forum, July 2005, Hanoi: Vietnam News Agency.
    • Vietnam Law and Legal Forum, July 2005, Hanoi: Vietnam News Agency.
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    • UNDP note 56
    • UNDP (note 56).
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    • Based on interviews with both lawyers and members of international foundations and agencies in Hanoi, 9-14 October 2006. Vietnam does not keep formal records of the number and type of complaints. But there was a degree of consensus that land issues were an especially important reason for lodging complaints
    • Based on interviews with both lawyers and members of international foundations and agencies in Hanoi, 9-14 October 2006. Vietnam does not keep formal records of the number and type of complaints. But there was a degree of consensus that land issues were an especially important reason for lodging complaints.
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    • In fact, even the government has admitted that there is not enough capacity to respond to the growing number of administrative complaints
    • In fact, even the government has admitted that there is not enough capacity to respond to the growing number of administrative complaints.
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    • Technocratic v. Convivial Accountability
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    • Bronwen Morgan, 'Technocratic v. Convivial Accountability', in Michael Dowdle. (ed.), Public Accountability: Design, Dilemmas and Experiences (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 243-70.
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    • Morgan, B.1
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    • Citizens v. Mandarins: Administrative Litigation in China
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    • For a critical analysis of the ALL see, Stanford: Stanford University Press
    • For a critical analysis of the ALL see Stanley B. Lubman, Bird in a Cage: Legal Reform in China after Mao (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999).
    • (1999) Bird in a Cage: Legal Reform in China after Mao
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    • Mapping Legal Changes in the Context of Reforms to Chinese Police Powers
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    • Sarah Biddulph, 'Mapping Legal Changes in the Context of Reforms to Chinese Police Powers', in John Gillespie and Pip Nicholson (eds), Asian Socialism and Legal Change: The Dynamics of Vietnamese and Chinese Reform (Canberra: Asia Pacific Press Australian National University, 2005), p. 224.
    • (2005) Asian Socialism and Legal Change: The Dynamics of Vietnamese and Chinese Reform , pp. 224
    • Biddulph, S.1
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    • Gillespie note 54
    • Gillespie (note 54).
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    • Fritzen note 56
    • Fritzen (note 56).
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    • National Assembly Passes a Number of Laws
    • For details see, Vietnam News Agency VNA, 30 November, available at, accessed, November
    • For details see, Vietnam News Agency (VNA), 'National Assembly Passes a Number of Laws', VietNam Net Bridge website, 30 November 2005, available at http://english.vietnamnet.vn/politics/2005/11/517557/ (accessed 3, November 2006).
    • (2005) VietNam Net Bridge website , vol.3
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    • Biddulph note 72, p. 225
    • Biddulph (note 72), p. 225.
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    • Interviews with lawyers in Hanoi, 9-14 October 2006
    • Interviews with lawyers in Hanoi, 9-14 October 2006.
  • 88
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    • Ibid.
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    • Neither Transgressive Nor Contained: Boundary-Spanning Contention in China
    • Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Neither Transgressive Nor Contained: Boundary-Spanning Contention in China', Mobilization: An International Journal, Vol. 8, No. 1 (2003), pp. 51-64.
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    • O'Brien, K.J.1
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    • O'Brien's analysis, though, unlike ours, is focused on the boundary spanning acts between what he calls transgressive and contained contention, following Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). O'Brien suggests that 'the relationship of these two forms of contention deserves further study and this article suggests one way to explore it, namely, by focusing on acts that sit near the fuzzy boundary between official, prescribed politics and politics by other means' (ibid., p. 52). Our modes of participation offer a more complex categorization of forms of contention that goes beyond transgressive/contained contention dichotomy.
    • O'Brien's analysis, though, unlike ours, is focused on the boundary spanning acts between what he calls transgressive and contained contention, following Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). O'Brien suggests that 'the relationship of these two forms of contention deserves further study and this article suggests one way to explore it, namely, by focusing on acts that sit near the fuzzy boundary between official, prescribed politics and politics by other means' (ibid., p. 52). Our modes of participation offer a more complex categorization of forms of contention that goes beyond transgressive/contained contention dichotomy.


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