Phenotypes of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 355-384

  Friedlander, Adam L ^a,b   Lynch, David ^b   Dyar, Liesel A ^b   Bowler, Russell P ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

^b NATIONAL JEWISH MEDICAL AND RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

COPD; Diagnostic imaging; Emphysema; Phenotype; Prognosis; Respiratory physiology

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID;

ANXIETY; BODY MASS; CACHEXIA; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; DEPRESSION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DYSPNEA; EXERCISE TOLERANCE; HUMAN; LUNG EMPHYSEMA; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; PHENOTYPE; PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 36249018965     PISSN: 15412555     EISSN: 15412563     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15412550701629663     Document Type: Review

References (288)

1. Pauwels R. Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung diseases (gold): Time to act. Eur Respir J 2001; 18:901-902.
2. Pauwels RA, Buist AS, Calverley PM, Jenkins CR, Hurd SS. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nhlbi/who global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease (gold) workshop summary. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:1256-1276.
3. American Thoracic Society. Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American thoracic society. Amer J Respir Criti Care Med 1995; 152:S77-121.
4. Anthonisen NR, Wright EC, Hodgkin JE. Prognosis in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1986; 133:14-20.
5. Nocturnal Oxygen Therapy Trial Group. Continuous or nocturnal oxygen therapy in hypoxemic chronic obstructive lung disease: A clinical trial. Nocturnal oxygen therapy trial group. Ann Intern Med 1980; 93:391-398.
6. Dolan S, Varkey B. Prognostic factors in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Opin Pulmon Med 2005; 11:149-152.
7. Wolkove N, Dajczman E, Colacone A, Kreisman H. The relationship between pulmonary function and dyspnea in obstructive lung disease. Chest 1989; 96:1247-1251.
8. Hajiro T, Nishimura K, Tsukino M, Ikeda A, Koyama H, Izumi T. Comparison of discriminative properties among disease-specific questionnaires for measuring health-related quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:785-790.
9. Hajiro T, Nishimura K, Tsukino M, Ikeda A, Oga T, Izumi T. A comparison of the level of dyspnea vs disease severity in indicating the health-related quality of life of patients with COPD. Chest 1999; 116:1632-1637.
10. Fletcher CM, Elmes PC, Fairbairn AS, Wood CH. The significance of respiratory symptoms and the diagnosis of chronic bronchitis in a working population. Br Med J 1959; 2:257-266.
11. BTS. Guidelines for the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The copd guidelines group of the standards of care committee of the BTS. Thorax 1997; 52 Suppl 5:S1-28.
12. Nishimura K, Izumi T, Tsukino M, Oga T. Dyspnea is a better predictor of 5-year survival than airway obstruction in patients with COPD. Chest 2002; 121:1434-1440.
13. Celli BR, Cote CG, Marin JM, Casanova C, Montes de Oca M, Mendez RA, Pinto Plata V, Cabral HJ. The body-mass index, airflow obstruction, dyspnea, and exercise capacity index in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. New Engl J Med 2004; 350:1005-1012.
14. Fan VS, Curtis JR, Tu SP, McDonell MB, Fihn SD. Using quality of life to predict hospitalization and mortality in patients with obstructive lung diseases. Chest 2002; 122:429-436.
15. Garcia-Aymerich J, Farrero E, Felez MA, Izquierdo J, Marrades RM, Anto JM. Risk factors of readmission to hospital for a COPD exacerbation: A prospective study. Thorax 2003; 58:100-105.
16. Garcia-Aymerich J, Monso E, Marrades RM, Escarrabill J, Felez MA, Sunyer J, Anto JM. Risk factors for hospitalization for a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbation. Efram study. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:1002-1007.
17. Niewoehner DE, Lokhnygina Y, Rice K, Kuschner WG, Sharafkhaneh A, Sarosi GA, Krumpe P, Pieper K, Kesten S. Risk indexes for exacerbations and hospitalizations due to COPD. Chest 2007; 131:20-28.
18. Roberts CM, Lowe D, Bucknall CE, Ryland I, Kelly Y, Pearson MG. Clinical audit indicators of outcome following admission to hospital with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2002; 57:137-141.
19. Skrepnek GH, Skrepnek SV. Epidemiology, clinical and economic burden, and natural history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Amer J Manag Care 2004; 10:S129-138.
20. Parshall MB. Adult emergency visits for chronic cardiorespiratory disease: Does dyspnea matter? Nurs Res 1999; 48:62-70.
21. Patil SP, Krishnan JA, Lechtzin N, Diette GB. In-hospital mortality following acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:1180-1186.
22. Groenewegen KH, Schols AM, Wouters EF. Mortality and mortality-related factors after hospitalization for acute exacerbation of COPD. Chest 2003; 124:459-467.
23. Goel A, Pinckney RG, Littenberg B. Apache ii predicts long-termsurvival in copd patients admitted to a general medical ward. J Gen Intern Med 2003; 18:824-830.
24. Almagro P, Calbo E, Ochoa de Echaguen A, Barreiro B, Quintana S, Heredia JL, Garau J. Mortality after hospitalization for COPD. Chest 2002; 121:1441-1448.
25. Decramer M, Gosselink R, Bartsch P, Lofdahl CG, Vincken W, Dekhuijzen R, Vestbo J, Pauwels R, Naeije R, Troosters T. Effect of treatments on the progression of COPD: Report of a workshop held in leuven, 11-12 march 2004. Thorax 2005; 60:343-349.
26. Mapel DW. Treatment implications on morbidity and mortality in COPD. Chest 2004; 126:150S-158S; Discussion 159S-161S.
27. Sin DD, Wu L, Anderson JA, Anthonisen NR, Buist AS, Burge PS, Calverley PM, Connett JE, Lindmark B, Pauwels RA, et al. Inhaled corticosteroids and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60:992-997.
28. Schols AM, Slangen J, Volovics L, Wouters EF. Weight loss is a reversible factor in the prognosis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Criti Care Med 1998; 157:1791-1797.
29. Schols AM, Broekhuizen R, Weling-Scheepers CA, Wouters EF. Body composition and mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Clin Nutr 2005; 82:53-59.
30. Prescott E, Almdal T, Mikkelsen KL, Tofteng CL, Vestbo J, Lange P. Prognostic value of weight change in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Results from the copenhagen city heart study. Eur Respir J 2002; 20:539-544.
31. Kotler DP. Cachexia. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133:622-634.
32. Chailleux E, Laaban JP, Veale D. Prognostic value of nutritional depletion in patients with COPD treated by long-termoxygen therapy: Data from the antadir observatory. Chest 2003; 123:1460-1466.
33. Schols AM. Nutrition in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Opin Pulmon Med 2000; 6:110-115.
34. Schols AM, Soeters PB, Dingemans AM, Mostert R, Frantzen PJ, Wouters EF. Prevalence and characteristics of nutritional depletion in patients with stable copd eligible for pulmonary rehabilitation. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:1151-1156.
35. Engelen MP, Wouters EF, Deutz NE, Does JD, Schols AM. Effects of exercise on amino acid metabolism in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:859-864.
36. Engelen MP, Schols AM, Does JD, Gosker HR, Deutz NE, Wouters EF. Exercise-induced lactate increase in relation to muscle substrates in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:1697-1704.
37. Debigare R, Cote CH, Maltais F. Peripheral muscle wasting in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clinical relevance and mechanisms. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:1712-1717J
38. Vestbo J, Prescott E, Almdal T, Dahl M, Nordestgaard BG, Andersen T, Sorensen TI, Lange P. Body mass, fat-free body mass, and prognosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease from a random population sample: Findings from the copenhagen city heart study. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173:79-83.
39. Agusti AG, Noguera A, Sauleda J, Sala E, Pons J, Busquets X. Systemic effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003; 21:347-360.
40. Balasubramanian VP, Varkey B. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Effects beyond the lungs. Curr Opin Pulmon Med 2006; 12:106-112.
41. Wouters EF, Creutzberg EC, Schols AM. Systemic effects in COPD. Chest 2002; 121:127S-130S.
42. Jagoe RT, Engelen MP. Muscle wasting and changes in muscle protein metabolism in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003; 46:52s-63s.
43. Gosker HR, Kubat B, Schaart G, van der Vusse GJ, Wouters EF, Schols AM. Myopathological features in skeletal muscle of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003; 22:280-285.
44. Jakobsson P, Jorfeldt L, Brundin A. Skeletal muscle metabolites and fibre types in patients with advanced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd), with and without chronic respiratory failure. Eur Respir J 1990; 3:192-196.
45. Hildebrand IL, Sylven C, Esbjornsson M, Hellstrom K, Jansson E. Does chronic hypoxaemia induce transformations of fibre types? Acta Physiol Scand 1991; 141:435-439.
46. Sato Y, Asoh T, Honda Y, Fujimatsu Y, Higuchi I, Oizumi K. Morphologic and histochemical evaluation of muscle in patients with chronic pulmonary emphysema manifesting generalized emaciation. Euro Neurol 1997; 37:116-121.
47. Maltais F, LeBlanc P, Simard C, Jobin J, Berube C, Bruneau J, Carrier L, Belleau R. Skeletalmuscle adaptation to endurance training in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:442-447.
48. Serres I, Varray A, Vallet G, Micallef JP, Prefaut C. Improved skeletalmuscle performance after individualized exercise training in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Cardiopul Rehab 1997; 17:232-238.
49. Vallet G, Ahmaidi S, Serres I, Fabre C, Bourgouin D, Desplan J, Varray A, Prefaut C. Comparison of two training programmes in chronic airway limitation patients: Standardized versus individualized protocols. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:114-122.
50. Couillard A, Prefaut C. From muscle disuse to myopathy in copd: Potential contribution of oxidative stress. Eur Respir J 2005; 26:703-719.
51. Agusti AG, Sauleda J, Miralles C, Gomez C, Togores B, Sala E, Batle S, Busquets X. Skeletal muscle apoptosis and weight loss in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:485-489.
52. Swallow EB, Reyes D, Hopkinson NS, Man WD, Porcher R, Cetti EJ, Moore AJ, Moxham J, Polkey MI. Quadriceps strength predicts mortality in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2007; 62:115-120.
53. Li X, Moody MR, Engel D, Walker S, Clubb FJ, Jr., Sivasubramanian N, Mann DL, Reid MB. Cardiac-specific overexpression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha causes oxidative stress and contractile dysfunction in mouse diaphragm. Circulation 2000; 102:1690-1696.
54. Creutzberg EC, Schols AM, Weling-Scheepers CA, Buurman WA, Wouters EF. Characterization of nonresponse to high caloric oral nutritional therapy in depleted patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:745-752.
55. Agusti A, Morla M, Sauleda J, Saus C, Busquets X. Nf-kappab activation and inos upregulation in skeletalmuscle of patients with COPD and low body weight. Thorax 2004; 59:483-487.
56. Rabinovich RA, Bastos R, Ardite E, Llinas L, Orozco-Levi M, Gea J, Vilaro J, Barbera JA, Rodriguez-Roisin R, Fernandez-Checa JC, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction in copd patients with low body mass index. Eur Respir J 2007; 29:643-650.
57. Couillard A, Koechlin C, Cristol JP, Varray A, Prefaut C. Evidence of local exercise-induced systemic oxidative stress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Eur Respir J 2002; 20:1123-1129.
58. Rahman I, Skwarska E, MacNee W. Attenuation of oxidant/antioxidant imbalance during treatment of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1997; 52:565-568.
59. Palazzetti S, Rousseau AS, Richard MJ, Favier A, Margaritis I. Antioxidant supplementation preserves antioxidant response in physical training and low antioxidant intake. Br J Nutr 2004; 91:91-100.
60. Budweiser S, Heinemann F, Meyer K, Wild PJ, Pfeifer M. Weight gain in cachectic copd patients receiving noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation. Respir Care 2006; 51:126-132.
61. Donohue JF. Minimal clinically important differences in copd lung function. COPD 2005; 2:111-124.
62. Petty TL. COPD in perspective. Chest 2002; 121:116S-120S.
63. Paggiaro PL, Dahle R, Bakran I, Frith L, Hollingworth K, Efthimiou J. Multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial of inhaled fluticasone propionate in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. International copd study group. Lancet 1998; 351:773-780.
64. Vestbo J, Sorensen T, Lange P, Brix A, Torre P, Viskum K. Long-term effect of inhaled budesonide in mild and moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 1999; 353:1819-1823.
65. Pauwels RA, Lofdahl CG, Laitinen LA, Schouten JP, Postma DS, Pride NB, Ohlsson SV. Long-term treatment with inhaled budesonide in persons with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease who continue smoking. European respiratory society study on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. New Engl J Med 1999; 340:1948-1953.
66. Burge PS, Calverley PM, Jones PW, Spencer S, Anderson JA, Maslen TK. Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of fluticasone propionate in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: The isolde trial. BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 2000; 320:1297-1303.
67. The Lung Health Study Research Group. Effect of inhaled triamcinolone on the decline in pulmonary function in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. New Engl J Med 2000; 343:1902-1909.
68. Mahler DA, Wire P, Horstman D, Chang CN, Yates J, Fischer T, Shah T. Effectiveness of fluticasone propionate and salmeterol combination delivered via the diskus device in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:1084-1091.
69. Calverley P, Pauwels R, Vestbo J, Jones P, Pride N, Gulsvik A, Anderson J, Maden C. Combined salmeterol and fluticasone in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361:449-456.
70. Szafranski W, Cukier A, Ramirez A, Menga G, Sansores R, Nahabedian S, Peterson S, Olsson H. Efficacy and safety of budesonide/formoterol in the management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003; 21:74-81.
71. Hanania NA, Darken P, Horstman D, Reisner C, Lee B, Davis S, Shah T. The efficacy and safety of fluticasone propionate (250 microg)/salmeterol (50 microg) combined in the diskus inhaler for the treatment of copd. Chest 2003; 124:834-843.
72. Sutherland ER, Allmers H, Ayas NT, Venn AJ, Martin RJ. Inhaled corticosteroids reduce the progression of airflow limitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A meta-analysis. Thorax 2003; 58:937-941.
73. Vestbo J, Pauwels R, Anderson JA, Jones P, Calverley P. Early onset of effect of salmeterol and fluticasone propionate in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60:301-304.
74. Calverley PM, Anderson JA, Celli B, Ferguson GT, Jenkins C, Jones PW, Yates JC, Vestbo J. Salmeterol and fluticasone propionate and survival in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. New Engl J Med 2007; 356:775-789.
75. Soriano JB, Sin DD, Zhang X, Camp PG, Anderson JA, Anthonisen NR, Buist AS, Burge PS, Calverley PM, Connett JE, et al. A pooled analysis of fev1 decline in COPD patients randomized to inhaled corticosteroids or placebo. Chest 2007; 131:682-689.
76. Barnes PJ, Ito K, Adcock IM. Corticosteroid resistance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Inactivation of histone deacetylase. Lancet 2004; 363:731-733.
77. Barnes PJ, Shapiro SD, Pauwels RA. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Molecular and cellular mechanisms. Eur Respir J 2003; 22:672-688.
78. Cully JA, Graham DP, Stanley MA, Ferguson CJ, Sharafkhaneh A, Souchek J, Kunik ME. Quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and comorbid anxiety or depression. Psychosomatics 2006; 47:312-319.
79. Dahlen I, Janson C. Anxiety and depression are related to the outcome of emergency treatment in patients with obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 2002; 122:1633-1637.
80. Kim HF, Kunik ME, Molinari VA, Hillman SL, Lalani S, Orengo CA, Petersen NJ, Nahas Z, Goodnight-White S. Functional impairment in copd patients: The impact of anxiety and depression. Psychosomatics 2000; 41:465-471.
81. van Ede L, Yzermans CJ, Brouwer HJ. Prevalence of depression in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A systematic review. Thorax 1999; 54:688-692.
82. Smoller JW, Simon NM, Pollack MH, Kradin R, Stern T. Anxiety in patients with pulmonary disease: Comorbidity and treatment. Semin Clin Neuropsych 1999; 4:84-97.
83. Brenes GA. Anxiety and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Prevalence, impact, and treatment. Psychosom Med 2003; 65:963-970.
84. Prigatano GP, Wright EC, Levin D. Quality of life and its predictors in patients with mild hypoxemia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144:1613-1619.
85. Kvaal K, Macijauskiene J, Engedal K, Laake K. High prevalence of anxiety symptoms in hospitalized geriatric patients. Inter J Geriatr Psych 2001; 16:690-693.
86. Kunik ME, Roundy K, Veazey C, Souchek J, Richardson P, Wray NP, Stanley MA. Surprisingly high prevalence of anxiety and depression in chronic breathing disorders. Chest 2005; 127:1205-1211.
87. van Manen JG, Bindels PJ, Dekker FW, CJ IJ, van der Zee JS, Schade E. Risk of depression in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its determinants. Thorax 2002; 57:412-416.
88. Di Marco F, Verga M, Reggente M, Maria Casanova F, Santus P, Blasi F, Allegra L, Centanni S. Anxiety and depression in copd patients: The roles of gender and disease severity. Respir Med 2006; 100:1767-1774.
89. Felker B, Katon W, Hedrick SC, Rasmussen J, McKnight K, McDonnell MB, Fihn SD. The association between depressive symptoms and health status in patients with chronic pulmonary disease. Gen Hosp Psych 2001; 23:56-61.
90. Neuman A, Gunnbjornsdottir M, Tunsater A, Nystrom L, Franklin KA, Norrman E, Janson C. Dyspnea in relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression: A prospective population study. Respir Med 2006; 100:1843-1849.
91. Agle DP, Baum GL. Psychological aspects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Clin N Amer 1977; 61:749-758.
92. Norwood R, Balkissoon R. Current perspectives on management of co-morbid depression in copd. COPD 2005; 2:185-193.
93. Borson S, Claypoole K, McDonald GJ. Depression and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Treatment trials. Semin Clin Neuropsych 1998; 3:115-130.
94. Wamboldt FS. Anxiety and depression in COPD: A call (and need) for further research. COPD 2005; 2:199-201.
95. Clark DM. A cognitive approach to panic. Behav Res Ther 1986; 24:461-470.
96. Moore MC, Zebb BJ. The catastrophic misinterpretation of physiological distress. Behav Res Ther 1999; 37:1105-1118.
97. Behrendt CE. Mild and moderate-to-severe copd in nonsmokers: Distinct demographic profiles. Chest 2005; 128:1239-1244.
98. Birring SS, Brightling CE, Bradding P, Entwisle JJ, Vara DD, Grigg J, Wardlaw AJ, Pavord ID. Clinical, radiologic, and induced sputum features of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in nonsmokers: A descriptive study. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:1078-1083.
99. Pena VS, Miravitlles M, Gabriel R, Jimenez-Ruiz CA, Villasante C, Masa JF, Viejo JL, Fernandez-Fau L. Geographic variations in prevalence and underdiagnosis of copd: Results of the iberpoc multicentre epidemiological study. Chest 2000; 118:981-989.
100. Ekici A, Ekici M, Kurtipek E, Akin A, Arslan M, Kara T, Apaydin Z, Demir S. Obstructive airway diseases in women exposed to biomass smoke. Environ Res 2005; 99:93-98.
101. Matheson MC, Benke G, Raven J, Sim MR, Kromhout H, Vermeulen R, Johns DP, Walters EH, Abramson MJ. Biological dust exposure in the workplace is a risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60:645-651.
102. Tashkin DP, Detels R, Simmons M, Liu H, Coulson AH, Sayre J, Rokaw S. The ucla population studies of chronic obstructive respiratory disease: Xi. Impact of air pollution and smoking on annual change in forced expiratory volume in one second. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149:1209-1217.
103. Silva GE, Sherrill DL, Guerra S, Barbee RA. Asthma as a risk factor for copd in a longitudinal study. Chest 2004; 126:59-65.
104. O'Connor GT, Sparrow D, Weiss ST. A prospective longitudinal study of methacholine airway responsiveness as a predictor of pulmonary-function decline: The normative aging study. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:87-92.
105. Dahl M, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Lange P, Vestbo J, Nordestgaard BG. Change in lung function and morbidity from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in alpha1-antitrypsin mz heterozygotes: A longitudinal study of the general population. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136:270-279.
106. Kraft M, Mortenson RL, Colby TV, Newman L, Waldron JA, Jr., King TE, Jr. Cryptogenic constrictive bronchiolitis. A clinicopathologic study. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148:1093-1101.
107. Turton CW, Firth G, Grundy E, Rigden BG, Smyth JT, Turner-Warwick M. Raised enzyme markers of chronic inflammation in asymptomatic farmers' lung. Thorax 1981; 36:122-125.
108. Homma H, Yamanaka A, Tanimoto S, Tamura M, Chijimatsu Y, Kira S, Izumi T. Diffuse panbronchiolitis. A disease of the transitional zone of the lung. Chest 1983; 83:63-69.
109. Aguayo SM, Miller YE, Waldron JA, Jr., Bogin RM, Sunday ME, Staton GW, Jr., Beam WR, King TE, Jr. Brief report: Idiopathic diffuse hyperplasia of pulmonary neuroendocrine cells and airways disease. New Engl J Med 1992; 327:1285-1288.
110. Global Initiative for Chronic Obstrcutive Lung Disease. Executive summary: Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstrcutive pulmonary disease. http://wwwgoldcopdcom (accessed January 2007); 2006.
111. Siafakas NM, Vermeire P, Pride NB, Paoletti P, Gibson J, Howard P, Yernault JC, Decramer M, Higenbottam T, Postma DS, et al. Optimal assessment and management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The European Respiratory Society Task Force. Eur Respir J 1995; 8:1398-1420.
112. Speizer FE, Fay ME, Dockery DW, Ferris BG, Jr. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease mortality in six U.S. Cities. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1989; 140:S49-55.
113. Tager IB, Segal MR, Speizer FE, Weiss ST. The natural history of forced expiratory volumes. Effect of cigarette smoking and respiratory symptoms. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1988; 138:837-849.
114. Fletcher C, Peto R. The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction. Br Med J 1977; 1:1645-1648.
115. Mannino DM, Davis KJ. Lung function decline and outcomes in an elderly population. Thorax 2006; 61:472-477.
116. Mannino DM, Reichert MM, Davis KJ. Lung function decline and outcomes in an adult population. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173:985-990.
117. Anthonisen NR, Connett JE, Kiley JP, Altose MD, Bailey WC, Buist AS, Conway WA, Jr., Enright PL, Kanner RE, O'Hara P, et al. Effects of smoking intervention and the use of an inhaled anticholinergic bronchodilator on the rate of decline of fev1. The lung health study. JAMA 1994; 272:1497-1505.
118. Tashkin DP, Altose MD, Connett JE, Kanner RE, Lee WW, Wise RA. Methacholine reactivity predicts changes in lung function over time in smokers with early chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The lung health study research group. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1802-1811.
119. Anthonisen NR. Lessons from the lung health study. Proc Amer Thor Soc 2004; 1:143-145.
120. Kanner RE, Anthonisen NR, Connett JE. Lower respiratory illnesses promote fev(1) decline in current smokers but not exsmokers with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Results from the lung health study. Amer J Respir Critical Care Med 2001; 164:358-364.
121. Fletcher C, Peto R, Tinkeer C, Speizer FE. The natural history of chornic bronchitis and emphsema. 1976.
122. Vestbo J, Prescott E, Lange P. Association of chronicmucus hypersecretion with fev1 decline and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease morbidity. Copenhagen City Heart Study Group. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153:1530-1535.
123. Lange P, Parner J, Vestbo J, Schnohr P, Jensen G. A 15-year follow-up study of ventilatory function in adults with asthma. New Engl J Med 1998; 339:1194-1200.
124. Almind M, Viskum K, Evald T, Dirksen A, Kok-Jensen A. A seven-year follow-up study of 343 adults with bronchial asthma. Dan Med Bull 1992; 39:561-565.
125. Sherrill D, Guerra S, Bobadilla A, Barbee R. The role of concomitant respiratory diseases on the rate of decline in FEV1 among adult asthmatics. Eur Respir J 2003; 21:95-100.
126. Sandford AJ, Chagani T, Weir TD, Connett JE, Anthonisen NR, Pare PD. Susceptibility genes for rapid decline of lung function in the lung health study. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:469-473.
127. Joos L, Weir TD, Connett JE, Anthonisen NR, Woods R, Pare PD, Sandford AJ. Polymorphisms in the beta2 adrenergic receptor and bronchodilator response, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and rate of decline in lung function in smokers. Thorax 2003; 58:703-707.
128. Ogawa E, Ruan J, Connett JE, Anthonisen NR, Pare PD, Sandford AJ. Transforming growth factor-beta1 polymorphisms, airway responsiveness and lung function decline in smokers. Respir Med 2006.
129. Boyd G, Morice AH, Pounsford JC, Siebert M, Peslis N, Crawford C. An evaluation of salmeterol in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd). Eur Respir J 1997; 10:815-821.
130. Oberbeck R, Dahlweid M, Koch R, van Griensven M, Emmendorfer A, Tscherne H, Pape HC. Dehydroepiandrosterone decreases mortality rate and improves cellular immune function during polymicrobial sepsis. Critical Care Med 2001; 29:380-384.
131. Wadbo M, Lofdahl CG, Larsson K, Skoogh BE, Tornling G, Arwestrom E, Bengtsson T, Strom K. Effects of formoterol and ipratropium bromide in copd: A 3-month placebo-controlled study. Eur Respir J 2002; 20:1138-1146.
132. Dahl R, Greefhorst LA, Nowak D, Nonikov V, Byrne AM, Thomson MH, Till D, Della Cioppa G. Inhaled formoterol dry powder versus ipratropium bromide in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:778-784.
133. Jones PW, Bosh TK. Quality of life changes in copd patients treated with salmeterol. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155:1283-1289.
134. Calverley PM, Boonsawat W, Cseke Z, Zhong N, Peterson S, Olsson H. Maintenance therapy with budesonide and formoterol in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2003; 22:912-919.
135. Liesker JJ, Van De Velde V, Meysman M, Vincken W, Wollmer P, Hansson L, Kerstjens HA, Qvint U, Pauwels RA. Effects of formoterol (oxis turbuhaler) and ipratropium on exercise capacity in patients with COPD. Respir Med 2002; 96:559-566.
136. Soriano JB, Vestbo J, Pride NB, Kiri V, Maden C, Maier WC. Survival in copd patients after regular use of fluticasone propionate and salmeterol in general practice. Eur Respir J 2002; 20:819-825.
137. van Schayck CP, Dompeling E, van Herwaarden CL, Folgering H, Akkermans RP, van den Broek PJ, van Weel C. Continuous and on demand use of bronchodilators in patients with non-steroid dependent asthma and chronic bronchitis: Fouryear follow-up randomized controlled study. Br J Gen Pract 1995; 45:239-244.
138. Anthonisen NR, Lindgren PG, Tashkin DP, Kanner RE, Scanlon PD, Connett JE. Bronchodilator response in the lung health study over 11 yrs. Eur Respir J 2005; 26:45-51.
139. Calverley PM, Burge PS, Spencer S, Anderson JA, Jones PW. Bronchodilator reversibility testing in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2003; 58:659-664.
140. Celedon JC, Speizer FE, Drazen JM, Weiss ST, Campbell EJ, Carey VJ, Reilly JJ, Ginns L, Silverman EK. Bronchodilator responsiveness and serum total ige levels in families of probands with severe early-onset COPD. Eur Respir J 1999; 14:1009-1014.
141. Palmer LJ, Celedon JC, Chapman HA, Speizer FE, Weiss ST, Silverman EK. Genome-wide linkage analysis of bronchodilator responsiveness and post-bronchodilator spirometric phenotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Human Mol Gen 2003; 12:1199-1210.
142. Vincken W, van Noord JA, Greefhorst AP, Bantje TA, Kesten S, Korducki L, Cornelissen PJ. Improved health outcomes in patients with COPD during 1 yr's treatment with tiotropium. Eur Respir J 2002; 19:209-216.
143. Casaburi R, Mahler DA, Jones PW, Wanner A, San PG, ZuWallack RL, Menjoge SS, Serby CW, Witek T, Jr. A long-term evaluation of once-daily inhaled tiotropium in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2002; 19:217-224.
144. O'Donnell DE, Fluge T, Gerken F, Hamilton A, Webb K, Aguilaniu B, Make B, Magnussen H. Effects of tiotropium on lung hyperinflation, dyspnoea and exercise tolerance in copd. Eur Respir J 2004; 23:832-840.
145. Casaburi R, Kukafka D, Cooper CB, Witek TJ, Jr., Kesten S. Improvement in exercise tolerance with the combination of tiotropium and pulmonary rehabilitation in patients with copd. Chest 2005; 127:809-817.
146. Tashkin DP, Altose MD, Bleecker ER, Connett JE, Kanner RE, Lee WW, Wise R. The lung health study: Airway responsiveness to inhaled methacholine in smokers with mild to moderate airflow limitation. The lung health study research group. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145:301-310.
147. Wise RA, Kanner RE, Lindgren P, Connett JE, Altose MD, Enright PL, Tashkin DP. The effect of smoking intervention and an inhaled bronchodilator on airways reactivity in COPD: The lung health study. Chest 2003; 124:449-458.
148. Brutsche MH, Downs SH, Schindler C, Gerbase MW, Schwartz J, Frey M, Russi EW, Ackermann-Liebrich U, Leuenberger P. Bronchial hyperresponsiveness and the development of asthma and COPD in asymptomatic individuals: Sapaldia cohort study. Thorax 2006; 61:671-677.
149. Postma DS, Kerstjens HA. Characteristics of airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:S187-192.
150. Meyers DA, Larj MJ, Lange L. Genetics of asthma and COPD. Similar results for different phenotypes. Chest 2004; 126:105S-110S; discussion 159S-161S.
151. Robinson RW, White DP, Zwillich CW. Relationship of respiratory drives to dyspnea and exercise performance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136:1084-1090.
152. 2 retention. Thorax 1998; 53:768-774.
153. Gorini M, Misuri G, Corrado A, Duranti R, Iandelli I, De Paola E, Scano G. Breathing pattern and carbon dioxide retention in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1996; 51:677-683.
154. Johnson MA, Woodcock AA, Rehahn M, Geddes DM. Are "Pink puffers" more breathless than "Blue bloaters"? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286:179-182.
155. Marin JM, Montes de Oca M, Rassulo J, Celli BR. Ventilatory drive at rest and perception of exertional dyspnea in severe copd. Chest 1999; 115:1293-1300.
156. Ferrari K, Goti P, Duranti R, Iandelli I, Misuri G, Mancini M, Rosi E, Scano G. Breathlessness and control of breathing in patients with copd. Monaldi archives for chest disease = Archivio Monaldi per le malattie del torace / Fondazione clinica del lavoro, IRCCS [and] Istituto di clinica tisiologica e malattie apparato respiratorio, Universita di Napoli, Secondo ateneo 1997; 52:18-23.
157. Nizet TA, van den Elshout FJ, Heijdra YF, van de Ven MJ, Mulder PG, Folgering HT. Survival of chronic hypercapnic COPD patients is predicted by smoking habits, comorbidity, and hypoxemia. Chest 2005; 127:1904-1910.
158. Jones PW. Health status measurement in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2001; 56:880-887.
159. Celli BR, MacNee W. Standards for the diagnosis and treatment of patients with copd: A summary of the ats/ers position paper. Eur Respir J 2004; 23:932-946.
160. Oga T, Nishimura K, Tsukino M, Sato S, Hajiro T, Mishima M. Exercise capacity deterioration in patients with COPD: Longitudinal evaluation over 5 years. Chest 2005; 128:62-69.
161. Pinto-Plata VM, Cote C, Cabral H, Taylor J, Celli BR. The 6-min walk distance: Change over time and value as a predictor of survival in severe COPD. Eur Respir J 2004; 23:28-33.
162. Oga T, Nishimura K, Tsukino M, Sato S, Hajiro T. Analysis of the factors related to mortality in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Role of exercise capacity and health status. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167:544-549.
163. Arnardottir RH, Emtner M, Hedenstrom H, Larsson K, Boman G. Peak exercise capacity estimated from incremental shuttle walking test in patients with COPD: A methodological study. Respir Res 2006; 7:127.
164. European Respiratory Society. Clinical exercise testing with reference to lung diseases: Indications, standardization and interpretation strategies. Ers task force on standardization of clinical exercise testing. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:2662-2689.
165. ATS Statement. Guidelines for the six-minute walk test. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:111-117.
166. McGavin CR, Gupta SP, McHardy GJ. Twelve-minute walking test for assessing disability in chronic bronchitis. Br Med J 1976; 1:822-823.
167. Fishman A, Martinez F, Naunheim K, Piantadosi S, Wise R, Ries A, Weinmann G, Wood DE. A randomized trial comparing lung-volume-reduction surgery with medical therapy for severe emphysema. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:2059-2073.
168. Bernstein ML, Despars JA, Singh NP, Avalos K, Stansbury DW, Light RW. Reanalysis of the 12-minute walk in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 1994; 105:163-167.
169. Hajiro T, Nishimura K, Tsukino M, Ikeda A, Koyama H, Izumi T. Analysis of clinical methods used to evaluate dyspnea in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:1185-1189.
170. Kessler R, Faller M, Fourgaut G, Mennecier B, Weitzenblum E. Predictive factors of hospitalization for acute exacerbation in a series of 64 patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159:158-164.
171. Singh SJ, Morgan MD, Scott S, Walters D, Hardman AE. Development of a shuttle walking test of disability in patients with chronic airways obstruction. Thorax 1992; :1019-1024.
172. Ferguson GT. Why does the lung hyperinflate? Proc Amer Thor Soc 2006; 3:176-179.
173. Leith DE, Brown R. Human lung volumes and the mechanisms that set them. Eur Respir J 1999; 13:468-472.
174. O'Donnell DE, Bertley JC, Chau LK, Webb KA. Qualitative aspects of exertional breathlessness in chronic airflow limitation: Pathophysiologic mechanisms. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155:109-115.
175. O'Donnell DE, Revill SM, Webb KA. Dynamic hyperinflation and exercise intolerance in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:770-777.
176. O'Donnell DE. Ventilatory limitations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Sci Sports Exer 2001; 33:S647-655.
177. Cooper CB. The connection between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms and hyperinflation and its impact on exercise and function. Amer J Med 2006; 119:21-31.
178. O'Donnell DE, Voduc N, Fitzpatrick M, Webb KA. Effect of salmeterol on the ventilatory response to exercise in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2004; 24:86-94.
179. Cotton DJ, Soparkar GR, Grahan BL. Diffusing capacity in the clinical assessment of chronic airflow limitation. Med Clinics North Amer 1996; 80:549-564.
180. Makita H, Nasuhara Y, Betsuyaku T, Onodera Y, Hizawa N, Nishimura M. Characterization of phenotypes based on severity of emphysema in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2007, in press.
181. Mohsenifar Z, Lee SM, Diaz P, Criner G, Sciurba F, Ginsburg M, Wise RA. Single-breath diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide: A predictor of pao2, maximum work rate, and walking distance in patients with emphysema. Chest 2003; 123:1394-1400.
182. Rubin LJ. Diagnosis and management of pulmonary arterial hypertension: Accp evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2004; 126:4S-6S.
183. Rubin LJ, Badesch DB. Evaluation and management of the patient with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143:282-292.
184. Weitzenblum E, Hirth C, Ducolone A, Mirhom R, Rasaholinjanahary J, Ehrhart M. Prognostic value of pulmonary artery pressure in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1981; 36:752-758.
185. Wright JL, Levy RD, Churg A. Pulmonary hypertension in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Current theories of pathogenesis and their implications for treatment. Thorax 2005; 60:605-609.
186. Cooper R, Ghali J, Simmons BE, Castaner A. Elevated pulmonary artery pressure. An independent predictor of mortality. Chest 1991; 99:112-120.
187. Kessler R, Faller M, Weitzenblum E, Chaouat A, Aykut A, Ducolone A, Ehrhart M, Oswald-Mammosser M. "Natural history" Of pulmonary hypertension in a series of 131 patients with chronic obstructive lung disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:219-224.
188. Eddahibi S, Chaouat A, Morrell N, Fadel E, Fuhrman C, Bugnet AS, Dartevelle P, Housset B, Hamon M, Weitzenblum E, et al. Polymorphism of the serotonin transporter gene and pulmonary hypertension in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Circulation 2003; 108:1839-1844.
189. Naeije R. Pulmonary hypertension and right heart failure in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Amer Thorac Soc 2005; 2:20-22.
190. Scharf SM, Iqbal M, Keller C, Criner G, Lee S, Fessler HE. Hemodynamic characterization of patients with severe emphysema. Amer J Respir Critical Care Med 2002; 166:314-322.
191. Rubin LJ. Primary pulmonary hypertension. New Engl J Med 1997; 336:111-117.
192. Naeije R, Barbera JA. Pulmonary hypertension associated with COPD. Crit Care (London, England) 2001; 5:286-289.
193. Lejeune P, Mols P, Naeije R, Hallemans R, Melot C. Acute hemodynamic effects of controlled oxygen therapy in decompensated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Crit Care Med 1984; 12:1032-1035.
194. Timms RM, Khaja FU, Williams GW. Hemodynamic response to oxygen therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102:29-36.
195. Peinado VI, Barbera JA, Abate P, Ramirez J, Roca J, Santos S, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Inflammatory reaction in pulmonary muscular arteries of patients with mild chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159:1605-1611.
196. Wilkinson M, Langhorne CA, Heath D, Barer GR, Howard P. A pathophysiological study of 10 cases of hypoxic cor pulmonale. Quart J Med 1988; 66:65-85.
197. Wright JL, Tai H, Churg A. Cigarette smoke induces persisting increases of vasoactive mediators in pulmonary arteries. Amer J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004; 31:501-509.
198. Nakano Y, Muro S, Sakai H, Hirai T, Chin K, Tsukino M, Nishimura K, Itoh H, Pare PD, Hogg JC, et al. Computed tomographic measurements of airway dimensions and emphysema in smokers. Correlation with lung function. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:1102-1108.
199. Coxson HO, Rogers RM, Whittall KP, D'Yachkova Y, Pare PD, Sciurba FC, Hogg JC. A quantification of the lung surface area in emphysema using computed tomography. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159:851-856.
200. Nishimura K, Murata K, Yamagishi M, Itoh H, Ikeda A, Tsukino M, Koyama H, Sakai N, Mishima M, Izumi T. Comparison of different computed tomography scanning methods for quantifying emphysema. J Thorac Imag 1998; 13:193-198.
201. Sakai N, Mishima M, Nishimura K, Itoh H, Kuno K. An automated method to assess the distribution of low attenuation areas on chest ct scans in chronic pulmonary emphysema patients. Chest 1994; 106:1319-1325.
202. Gevenois PA, de Maertelaer V, De Vuyst P, Zanen J, Yernault JC. Comparison of computed density and macroscopic morphometry in pulmonary emphysema. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:653-657.
203. Gevenois PA, De Vuyst P, de Maertelaer V, Zanen J, Jacobovitz D, Cosio MG, Yernault JC. Comparison of computed density and microscopic morphometry in pulmonary emphysema. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:187-192.
204. Gevenois PA, De Vuyst P, Sy M, Scillia P, Chaminade L, de Maertelaer V, Zanen J, Yernault JC. Pulmonary emphysema: Quantitative CT during expiration. Radiology 1996; 199:825-829.
205. Gurney JW, Jones KK, Robbins RA, Gossman GL, Nelson KJ, Daughton D, Spurzem JR, Rennard SI. Regional distribution of emphysema: Correlation of high-resolution CT with pulmonary function tests in unselected smokers. Radiology 1992; 183:457-463.
206. Kinsella M, Muller NL, Abboud RT, Morrison NJ, DyBuncio A. Quantitation of emphysema by computed tomography using a "Density mask" Program and correlation with pulmonary function tests. Chest 1990; 97:315-321.
207. Kuwano K, Matsuba K, Ikeda T, Murakami J, Araki A, Nishitani H, Ishida T, Yasumoto K, Shigematsu N. The diagnosis of mild emphysema. Correlation of computed tomography and pathology scores. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:169-178.
208. Lamers RJ, Thelissen GR, Kessels AG, Wouters EF, van Engelshoven JM. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Evaluation with spirometrically controlled CT lung densitometry. Radiology 1994; 193:109-113.
209. Mishima M, Hirai T, Itoh H, Nakano Y, Sakai H, Muro S, Nishimura K, Oku Y, Chin K, Ohi M, et al. Complexity of terminal airspace geometry assessed by lung computed tomography in normal subjects and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96:8829-8834.
210. Mishima M, Hirai T, Jin Z, Oku Y, Sakai N, Nakano Y, Sakai H, Chin K, Ohi M, Kawakami K, et al. Standardization of low attenuation area versus total lung area in chest X-ray CT as an indicator of chronic pulmonary emphysema. Front Med Biol Eng 1997; 8:79-86.
211. Mishima M, Itoh H, Sakai H, Nakano Y, Muro S, Hirai T, Takubo Y, Chin K, Ohi M, Nishimura K, et al. Optimized scanning conditions of high resolution CT in the follow-up of pulmonary emphysema. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1999; 23:380-384.
212. Mishima M, Oku Y, Kawakami K, Sakai N, Fukui M, Hirai T, Chin K, Ohi M, Nishimura K, Itoh H, et al. Quantitative assessment of the spatial distribution of low attenuation areas on X-ray CT using texture analysis in patients with chronic pulmonary emphysema. Front Med Biol Eng 1997; 8:19-34.
213. Muller NL, Staples CA, Miller RR, Abboud RT. "Density mask". An objective method to quantitate emphysema using computed tomography. Chest 1988; 94:782-787.
214. Nakano Y, Sakai H, Muro S, Hirai T, Oku Y, Nishimura K, Mishima M. Comparison of low attenuation areas on computed tomographic scans between inner and outer segments of the lung in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Incidence and contribution to lung function. Thorax 1999; 54:384-389.
215. Nakano Y, Wong JC, de Jong PA, Buzatu L, Nagao T, Coxson HO, Elliott WM, Hogg JC, Pare PD. The prediction of small airway dimensions using computed tomography. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 171:142-146.
216. Vikgren J, Boijsen M, Andelid K, Ekberg-Jansson A, Larsson S, Bake B, Tylen U. High-resolution computed tomography in healthy smokers and never-smokers: A 6-year follow-up study of men born in 1933. Acta Radiol 2004; 45:44-52.
217. Hruban RH, Meziane MA, Zerhouni EA, Khouri NF, Fishman EK, Wheeler PS, Dumler JS, Hutchins GM. High resolution computed tomography of inflation-fixed lungs. Pathologicradiologic correlation of centrilobular emphysema. Amer Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136:935-940.
218. Foster WL, Jr., Pratt PC, Roggli VL, Godwin JD, Halvorsen RA, Jr., Putman CE. Centrilobular emphysema: Ct-pathologic correlation. Radiology 1986; 159:27-32.
219. Foster WL, Jr., Gimenez EI, Roubidoux MA, Sherrier RH, Shannon RH, Roggli VL, Pratt PC. The emphysemas: Radiologic-pathologic correlations. Radiographics 1993; 13:311-328.
220. Copley SJ, Wells AU, Muller NL, Rubens MB, Hollings NP, Cleverley JR, Milne DG, Hansell DM. Thin-section CT in obstructive pulmonary disease: Discriminatory value. Radiology 2002; 223:812-819.
221. Satoh K, Kobayashi T, Misao T, Hitani Y, Yamamoto Y, Nishiyama Y, Ohkawa M. Ct assessment of subtypes of pulmonary emphysema in smokers. Chest 2001; 120:725-729.
222. Stern EJ, Webb WR, Weinacker A, Muller NL. Idiopathic giant bullous emphysema (vanishing lung syndrome): Imaging findings in nine patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 162:279-282.
223. Kim WD, Eidelman DH, Izquierdo JL, Ghezzo H, Saetta MP, Cosio MG. Centrilobular and panlobular emphysema in smokers. Two distinct morphologic and functional entities. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144:1385-1390.
224. Saetta M, Kim WD, Izquierdo JL, Ghezzo H, Cosio MG. Extent of centrilobular and panacinar emphysema in smokers' lungs: Pathological and mechanical implications. Eur Respir J 1994; 7:664-671.
225. Hogg JC, Senior RM. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - part 2: Pathology and biochemistry of emphysema. Thorax 2002; 57:830-834.
226. Sugi K, Kaneda Y, Murakami T, Esato K. The outcome of volume reduction surgery according to the underlying type of emphysema. Surg Today 2001; 31:580-585.
227. Goddard PR, Nicholson EM, Laszlo G, Watt I. Computed tomography in pulmonary emphysema. Clin Radiol 1982; 33:379-387.
228. Bergin CJ, Muller NL, Miller RR. Ct in the qualitative assessment of emphysema. J Thorac Imaging 1986; 1:94-103.
229. Coddington R, Mera SL, Goddard PR, Bradfield JW. Pathological evaluation of computed tomography images of lungs. J Clin Pathol 1982; 35:536-540.
230. Thurlbeck WM, Muller NL. Emphysema: Definition, imaging, and quantification. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1994; 163:1017-1025.
231. Klein JS, Gamsu G, Webb WR, Golden JA, Muller NL. High-resolution ct diagnosis of emphysema in symptomatic patients with normal chest radiographs and isolated low diffusing capacity. Radiology 1992; 182:817-821.
232. Spaggiari E, Zompatori M, Verduri A, Chetta A, Bna C, Ormitti F, Sverzellati N, Rabaiotti E. Early smoking-induced lung lesions in asymptomatic subjects. Correlations between high resolution dynamic ct and pulmonary function testing. Radiol Med (Torino) 2005; 109:27-39.
233. Baldi S, Miniati M, Bellina CR, Battolla L, Catapano G, Begliomini E, Giustini D, Giuntini C. Relationship between extent of pulmonary emphysema by high-resolution computed tomography and lung elastic recoil in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164:585-589.
234. Gelb AF, Hogg JC, Muller NL, Schein MJ, Kuei J, Tashkin DP, Epstein JD, Kollin J, Green RH, Zamel N, et al. Contribution of emphysema and small airways in COPD. Chest 1996; 109:353-359.
235. Sanders C, Nath PH, Bailey WC. Detection of emphysema with computed tomography. Correlation with pulmonary function tests and chest radiography. Invest Radiol 1988; 23:262-266.
236. Gelb AF, Zamel N, Hogg JC, Muller NL, Schein MJ. Pseudophysiologic emphysema resulting from severe small-airways disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:815-819.
237. Zeidler MR, Kleerup EC, Goldin JG, Kim HJ, Truong DA, Simmons MD, Sayre JW, Liu W, Elashoff R, Tashkin DP. Montelukast improves regional air-trapping due to small airways obstruction in asthma. Eur Respir J 2006; 27:307-315.
238. Jain N, Covar RA, Gleason MC, Newell JD, Jr., Gelfand EW, Spahn JD. Quantitative computed tomography detects peripheral airway disease in asthmatic children. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 40:211-218.
239. Grenier PA, Beigelman-Aubry C, Fetita C, Preteux F, Brauner MW, Lenoir S. New frontiers in ct imaging of airway disease. Eur Radiol 2002; 12:1022-1044.
240. Goldin JG. Quantitative ct of the lung. Radiol Clin North Am 2002; 40:145-162.
241. Newman KB, Lynch DA, Newman LS, Ellegood D, Newell JD, Jr. Quantitative computed tomography detects air trapping due to asthma. Chest 1994; 106:105-109.
242. Remy-Jardin M, Edme JL, Boulenguez C, Remy J, Mastora I, Sobaszek A. Longitudinal follow-up study of smoker's lung with thin-section CT in correlation with pulmonary function tests. Radiology 2002; 222:261-270.
243. Matsuoka S, Kurihara Y, Yagihashi K, Nakajima Y. Morphological progression of emphysema on thin-section ct: Analysis of longitudinal change in the number and size of low-attenuation clusters. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2006; 30:669-674.
244. Kitaguchi Y, Fujimoto K, Kubo K, Honda T. Characteristics of COPD phenotypes classified according to the findings of hrct. Respir Med 2006; 100:1742-1752.
245. Eriksson S. Studies in alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1965; 432:1-85.
246. Lieberman J, Winter B, Sastre A. Alpha 1-antitrypsin pi-types in 965 COPD patients. Chest 1986; 89:370-373.
247. Eriksson S. Discovery of alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency. Lung 1990; 168 Suppl:523-529.
248. Sakao S, Tatsumi K, Igari H, Watanabe R, Shino Y, Shirasawa H, Kuriyama T. Association of tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene promoter polymorphism with low attenuation areas on high-resolution CT in patients with COPD. Chest 2002; 122:416-420.
249. Ito I, Nagai S, Handa T, Muro S, Hirai T, Tsukino M, Mishima M. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 promoter polymorphism associated with upper lung dominant emphysema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 172:1378-1382.
250. Minematsu N, Nakamura H, Iwata M, Tateno H, Nakajima T, Takahashi S, Fujishima S, Yamaguchi K. Association of cyp2a6 deletion polymorphism with smoking habit and development of pulmonary emphysema. Thorax 2003; 58:623-628.
251. Silverman EK. Progress in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease genetics. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006; 3:405-408.
252. Sampsonas F, Karkoulias K, Kaparianos A, Spiropoulos K. Genetics of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, beyond a1-antitrypsin deficiency. Curr Med Chem 2006; 13:2857-2873.
253. Wood AM, Stockley RA. The genetics of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respir Res 2006; 7:130.
254. Cookson WO. State of the art. Genetics and genomics of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006; 3:473-475.
255. Joos L. Copd and genetics-what's new? Swiss Med Wkly 2004; 134:437-439.
256. Molfino NA. Genetics of COPD. Chest 2004; 125:1929-1940.
257. Hoidal JR. Genetics of COPD: Present and future. Eur Respir J 2001; 18:741-743.
258. Hogg JC, Chu F, Utokaparch S, Woods R, Elliott WM, Buzatu L, Cherniack RM, Rogers RM, Sciurba FC, Coxson HO, et al. The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:2645-2653.
259. Pedersen SK, Sloane AJ, Prasad SS, Sebastian LT, Lindner RA, Hsu M, Robinson M, Bye PT, Weinberger RP, Harry JL. An immunoproteomic approach for identification of clinical biomarkers for monitoring disease: Application to cystic fibrosis. Mol Cell Proteomics 2005; 4:1052-1060.
260. Orlandi I, Moroni C, Camiciottoli G, Bartolucci M, Pistolesi M, Villari N, Mascalchi M. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Thin-section ct measurement of airway wall thickness and lung attenuation. Radiology 2005; 234:604-610.
261. Aziz ZA, Wells AU, Desai SR, Ellis SM, Walker AE, MacDonald S, Hansell DM. Functional impairment in emphysema: Contribution of airway abnormalities and distribution of parenchymal disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 185:1509-1515.
262. Hasegawa M, Nasuhara Y, Onodera Y, Makita H, Nagai K, Fuke S, Ito Y, Betsuyaku T, Nishimura M. Airflow limitation and airway dimensions in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173:1309-1315.
263. Tschirren J, Hoffman EA, McLennan G, Sonka M. Intrathoracic airway trees: Segmentation and airway morphology analysis from low-dose ct scans. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 2005; 24:1529-1539.
264. Heyneman LE, Ward S, Lynch DA, Remy-Jardin M, Johkoh T, Muller NL. Respiratory bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease, and desquamative interstitial pneumonia: Different entities or part of the spectrum of the same disease process? AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999; 173:1617-1622.
265. Moon J, du Bois RM, Colby TV, Hansell DM, Nicholson AG. Clinical significance of respiratory bronchiolitis on open lung biopsy and its relationship to smoking related interstitial lung disease. Thorax 1999; 54:1009-1014.
266. Park JS, Brown KK, Tuder RM, Hale VA, King Jr TE, Lynch DA. Respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease: Radiologic features with clinical and pathologic correlation. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2002; 26:13-20.
267. Afessa B, Morales IJ, Scanlon PD, Peters SG. Prognostic factors, clinical course, and hospital outcome of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease admitted to an intensive care unit for acute respiratory failure. Crit Care Med 2002; 30:1610-1615.
268. Okada Y, Nagase H, Harris ED, Jr. Matrix metalloproteinases 1, 2, and 3 from rheumatoid synovial cells are sufficient to destroy joints. J Rheumatol 1987; 14 Spec No:41-42.
269. Joos L, He JQ, Shepherdson MB, Connett JE, Anthonisen NR, Pare PD, Sandford AJ. The role of matrix metalloproteinase polymorphisms in the rate of decline in lung function. Human Mol Genet 2002; 11:569-576.
270. Maines MD. The heme oxygenase system: A regulator of second messenger gases. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1997; 37:517-554.
271. He JQ, Ruan J, Connett JE, Anthonisen NR, Pare PD, Sandford AJ. Antioxidant gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to a rapid decline in lung function in smokers. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:323-328.
272. Horne SL, Cockcroft DW, Dosman JA. Possible protective effect against chronic obstructive airways disease by the gc2 allele. Human Hered 1990; 40:173-176.
273. Kew RR, Fisher JA, Webster RO. Co-chemotactic effect of gc-globulin (vitamin d binding protein) for c5a. Transient conversion into an active co-chemotaxin by neutrophils. J Immunol 1995; 155:5369-5374.
274. Yamamoto N, Homma S. Vitamin d3 binding protein (groupspecific component) is a precursor for the macrophage-activating signal factor from lysophosphatidylcholine-treated lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88:8539-8543.
275. Bouma G, Crusius JB, Oudkerk Pool M, Kolkman JJ, von Blomberg BM, Kostense PJ, Giphart MJ, Schreuder GM, Meuwissen SG, Pena AS. Secretion of tumour necrosis factor alpha and lymphotoxin alpha in relation to polymorphisms in the tnf genes and hla-dr alleles. Relevance for inflammatory bowel disease. Scand J Immunol 1996; 43:456-463.
276. Turki J, Pak J, Green SA, Martin RJ, Liggett SB. Genetic polymorphisms of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor in nocturnal and nonnocturnal asthma. Evidence that gly16 correlates with the nocturnal phenotype. J Clin Invest 1995; 95:1635-1641.
277. Weir TD, Mallek N, Sandford AJ, Bai TR, Awadh N, Fitzgerald JM, Cockcroft D, James A, Liggett SB, Pare PD. β2-adrenergic receptor haplotypes in mild, moderate and fatal/near fatal asthma. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:787-791.
278. Hall IP, Wheatley A, Wilding P, Liggett SB. Association of glu 27 beta 2-adrenoceptor polymorphism with lower airway reactivity in asthmatic subjects. Lancet 1995; 345:1213-1214.
279. Ramsay CE, Hayden CM, Tiller KJ, Burton PR, Goldblatt J, Lesouef PN. Polymorphisms in the beta2-adrenoreceptor gene are associated with decreased airway responsiveness. Clin Exp Allergy 1999; 29:1195-1203.
280. D'Amato M, Vitiani LR, Petrelli G, Ferrigno L, di Pietro A, Trezza R, Matricardi PM. Association of persistent bronchial hyperresponsiveness with beta2-adrenoceptor (adrb2) haplotypes. A population study. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:1968-1973.
281. Lima JJ, Thomason DB, Mohamed MH, Eberle LV, Self TH, Johnson JA. Impact of genetic polymorphisms of the beta2-adrenergic receptor on albuterol bronchodilator pharmacodynamics. Clin Pharmacol Therap 1999; 65:519-525.
282. Martinez FD, Graves PE, Baldini M, Solomon S, Erickson R. Association between genetic polymorphisms of the beta2-adrenoceptor and response to albuterol in children with and without a history of wheezing. J Clin Invest 1997; 100:3184-3188.
283. Ulbrecht M, Hergeth MT, Wjst M, Heinrich J, Bickeboller H, Wichmann HE, Weiss EH. Association of beta(2)-adrenoreceptor variants with bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161:469-474.
284. Summerhill E, Leavitt SA, Gidley H, Parry R, Solway J, Ober C. β(2)-adrenergic receptor arg16/arg16 genotype is associated with reduced lung function, but not with asthma, in the hutterites. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162:599-602.
285. Mannervik B. The isoenzymes of glutathione transferase. Adv Enzymol Related Areas Mol Biol 1985; 57:357-417.
286. Takizawa H, Tanaka M, Takami K, Ohtoshi T, Ito K, Satoh M, Okada Y, Yamasawa F, Nakahara K, Umeda A. Increased expression of transforming growth factor-beta1 in small airway epithelium from tobacco smokers and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163:1476-1483.
287. de Boer WI, van Schadewijk A, Sont JK, Sharma HS, Stolk J, Hiemstra PS, van Krieken JH. Transforming growth factor beta1 and recruitment of macrophages and mast cells in airways in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:1951-1957.
288. Chung KF. Cytokines in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur Respir J 2001; 34:50s-59s.