Quantitative morphologic evaluation of magnetic resonance imaging during and after treatment of childhood leukemia

Neuroradiology

Volumn 49, Issue 11, 2007, Pages 889-904

  Reddick, Wilburn E ^a   Laningham, Fred H ^a   Glass, John O ^a   Pui, Ching Hon ^a  

^a ST JUDE CHILDREN S RESEARCH HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia; Drug effects; MR imaging; Neurotoxicity

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; CYTARABINE; HYDROCORTISONE; METHOTREXATE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BRAIN BLOOD VESSEL; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN PERFUSION; BRAIN REGION; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CHILD; CHILDHOOD LEUKEMIA; CLINICAL ARTICLE; COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTROLLED STUDY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DISEASE COURSE; FEMALE; HUMAN; LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; MALE; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROTOXICITY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SURVIVAL RATE; WHITE MATTER;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; CHILD; HUMANS; IMAGE PROCESSING, COMPUTER-ASSISTED; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PRECURSOR CELL LYMPHOBLASTIC LEUKEMIA-LYMPHOMA;

EID: 36148997586     PISSN: 00283940     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00234-007-0262-9     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. Pui C-H, Evans WE (2006) Treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med 354:166-178
2. Shuper A, Stark B, Kornreich L, Cohen IJ, Avrahami G, Yaniv I (2002) Methotrexate-related neurotoxicity in the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Isr Med Assoc J 4:1050-1053
3. Balsom WR, Bleyer WA, Robison LL, Heyn RM, Meadows AT (1991) Intellectual function in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: protective effects of pre-irradiation methotrexate? A Children's Cancer Study Group study. Med Pediatr Oncol 19:486-492
4. Asato R, Akiyama Y, Ito M, Kubota M, Okumura R, Miki Y, Konishi J, Mikawa H (1992) Nuclear magnetic resonance abnormalities of the cerebral white matter in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and malignant lymphoma during and after central nervous system prophylactic treatment with intrathecal methotrexate. Cancer 70:1997-2004
5. Refsum H, Wesenberg F, Ueland PM (1991) Plasma homocysteine in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: changes during a chemotherapeutic regimen including methotrexate. Cancer Res 51:828-835
6. Morita H, Taguchi J, Kurihara H, Kitaoka M, Kaneda H, Kurihara Y, Maemura K, Shindo T, Minamino T, Ohno M, Yamaoki K, Ogasawara K, Aizawa T, Suzuki S, Yazaki Y (1997) Genetic polymorphism of 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) as a risk factor for coronary artery disease. Circulation 95:2032-2036
7. Quinn CT, Griener JC, Bottiglieri T, Hyland K, Farrow A, Kamen BA (1997) Elevation of homocysteine and excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters in the CSF of children who receive methotrexate for the treatment of cancer. J Clin Oncol 15:2800-2806
8. Connor JR, Menzies SL (1996) Relationship of iron to oligodendrocytes and myelination. Glia 17:83-93
9. Vymazal J, Brooks RA, Baumgarner C (1996) The relation between brain iron and NMR relaxation times: an in vitro study. Magn Reson Med 35:56-61
10. Smith B (1975) Brain damage after intrathecal methotrexate. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 38:810-815
11. van der Knaap MS, Valk J (1995) Magnetic resonance of myelin, myelination and myelin disorders. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany, pp 10-11
12. Plotkin SR, Wen PY (2003) Neurologic complications of cancer therapy. Neurol Clin N Am 21:279-318
13. McIntosh S, Fischer DB, Rothman SG, Rosenfield N, Lobel JS, O'Brien RT (1977) Intracranial calcifications in childhood leukemia. J Pediatr 91:909-913
14. Peylan-Ramu N, Poplack DG, Pizzo PA, Adornato BT, Di Chiro G (1978) Abnormal CT scans of the brain in asymptomatic children with acute lymphocytic leukemia after prophylactic treatment of the central nervous system with radiation and intrathecal chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 298:815-818
15. Ochs JJ, Parvey LS, Whitaker JN, Bowman WP, Ch'ien L, Campbell M, Coburn T (1983) Serial cranial computed-tomography scans in children with leukemia given two different forms of central nervous system therapy. J Clin Oncol 1:793-798
16. Brouwers P, Poplack DG (1990) Memory and learning sequelae in long-term survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia: association with attention deficits. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 12:174-181
17. Ochs JJ, Mulhern RK, Fairclough D, Parvey LS, Whitaker JN, Ch'ien L, Mauer A, Simone JV (1991) Comparison of neuropsychologic functioning and clinical indicators of neurotoxicity in long-term survivors of childhood leukemia given cranial radiation or parenteral methotrexate: a prospective study. J Clin Oncol 9:145-151
18. Chu WCW, Chik KW, Chan YL, Yeung KW, Roebuck DJ, Howard RG, Li CK, Metreweli C (2003) White matter and cerebral metabolite changes in children undergoing treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukemia: longitudinal study with MR imaging and 1H MR spectroscopy. Radiology 229:659-669
19. Paakko E, Vainionpaa L, Lanning M, Laitinen J, Pyhtinen J (1992) White matter changes in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 70:2728-2733
20. Kingma A, Mooyaart EL, Kamps WA, Nieuwenhuizen P, Wilmink JT (1993) Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and neuropsychological evaluation in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia at a young age. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 15:231-238
21. Paakko E, Vainionpaa L, Pyhtinen J, Lanning M (1996) Minor changes on cranial MRI during treatment in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Neuroradiology 38:264-268
22. Hertzberg H, Huk WJ, Ueberall MA, Langer T, Meier W, Dopfer R, Skalej M, Lackner H, Bode U, Janssen G, Zintl F, Beck JD (1997) CNS late effects after ALL therapy in childhood. Part 1: neuroradiological findings in long-term survivors of childhood ALL - an evaluation of the interferences between morphology and neuropsychological performance. Med Pediatr Oncol 28:387-400
23. Paakko E, Harila-Saari A, Vanionpaa L, Himanen S, Pyhtinen J, Lanning M (2000) White matter changes on MRI during treatment in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: correlation with neuropsychological findings. Med Pediatr Oncol 35:456-461
24. Kingma A, van Dommelen RI, Mooyaart EL, Wilmink JT, Deelman BG, Kamps WA (2001) Slight cognitive impairment and magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities but normal school levels in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia with chemotherapy only. J Pediatr 139:413-420
25. Wilson DA, Nitschke R, Bowman ME, Chaffin MJ, Sexauer CL, Prince JR (1991) Transient white matter changes on MR images in children undergoing chemotherapy for acute lymphocytic leukemia: correlation with neuropsychologic deficiencies. Radiology 180:205-209
26. Bakke SJ, Fossen A, Storm-Mathiesen I, Lie SO (1993) Long-term cerebral effects of CNS chemotherapy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 10:267-270
27. Mahoney DH Jr, Shuster JJ, Nitschke R, Lauer SJ, Steuber CP, Winick NJ, Camitta B (1998) Acute neurotoxicity in children with B-precursor acute lymphoid leukemia: an association with intermediate-dose intravenous methotrexate and intrathecal triple therapy-a Pediatric Oncology Group study. J Clin Oncol 16:1712-1722
28. Ochs JJ, Pui C-H, Mason C, Bowman WP, Abromowitch M, Simone JV (1984) Seizures in childhood lymphoblastic leukemia patients. Lancet 2:1422-1424
29. Ochs JJ (1989) Neurotoxicity due to central nervous system therapy for childhood leukemia. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 11:93-105
30. DiMario FJ Jr, Packer RJ (1990) Acute mental status changes in children with systemic cancer. Pediatrics 85:353-360
31. Rowland JH, Glidewell OJ, Sibley RF, Holland JC, Tull R, Berman A, Brecher ML, Harris M, Glicksman AS, Forman E, Jones B, Cohen ME, Duffner PK, Freeman AI (1984) Effects of different forms of central nervous system prophylaxis on neuropsychologic function in childhood leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2:1327-1335
32. Walker RW, Allen JC, Rosen G, Caparros B (1986) Transient cerebral dysfunction secondary to high-dose methotrexate. J Clin Oncol 14:1845-1850
33. Abromowitch M, Ochs JJ, Pui C-H, Kalwinsky D, Rivera GK, Fairclough D, Look AT, Hustu HO, Murphy SB, Evans WE, Dahl GV, Bowman WP (1988) High-dose methotrexate improves clinical outcome in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: St Jude Total Therapy Study X. Med Pediatr Oncol 16:297-303
34. Yim YS, Mahoney DH Jr, Oshman DG (1991) Hemiparesis and ischemic changes of the white matter after intrathecal therapy for children with acute lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer 67:2058-2061
35. Butler RW, Hill JM, Steinherz PG, Meyers PA, Finlay JL (1994) Neuropsychologic effects of cranial irradiation, intrathecal methotrexate, and systemic methotrexate in childhood cancer. J Clin Oncol 12:2621-2629
36. Barkovitch AJ (2000) Concepts of myelin and myelination in neuroradiology. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 21:1099-1109
37. Sandler DP, Ross JA (1997) Epidemiology of acute leukemia in children and adults. Semin Oncol 24:3-16
38. Glass JO, Reddick WE, Li C-S, Laningham FH, Helton KJ, Pui C-H (2006) Computer-aided detection of therapy-induced leukoencephalopathy in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia with intravenous high-dose methotrexate. Magn Reson Imaging 24:785-791
39. Ashton EA, Takahashi C, Berg MJ, Goodman A, Totterman S, Ekholm S (2003) Accuracy and reproducibility of manual and semiautomated quantification of MS lesions by MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 17:300-308
40. Fan YH, Lam WWM, Mok VCT, Huang RX, Wong KS (2003) Variability and validity of a simple visual rating scale in grading white matter changes on magnetic resonance imaging. J Neuroimaging 13:255-258
41. Parodi RC, Sardanelli F, Renzetti P, Rosso E, Losacco C, Ferrari A, Levrero F, Pilot A, Inglese M, Mancardi GL (2002) Growing region segmentation software (GRES) for quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of multiple sclerosis: intra- and inter-observer agreement variability: a comparison with manual contouring method. Eur Radiol 12:866-871
42. Wei X, Warfield S, Zou KH, Wu Y, Li X, Guimond A, Mugler IJP, Benson RR, Wolfson L, Weiner HL, Guttman CRG (2002) Quantitative analysis of MRI signal abnormalities of brain white matter with high reproducibility and accuracy. J Magn Reson Imaging 15:203-209
43. Payne ME, Fetzer DL, MacFall JR, Provenzale JM, Byrum CE, Krishnan KR (2002) Development of a semi-automated method for quantification of MRI gray and white matter lesions in geriatric subjects. Psychiatry Res 115:63-77
44. Swartz RH, Black SE, Feinstein A, Rockel C, Sela G, Gao FQ, Caldwell CB, Bronskill MJ (2002) Utility of simultaneous brain, CSF and hyperintensity quantification in dementia. Psychiatry Res 116:83-93
45. Glass JO, Reddick WE, Reeves C, Pui CH (2004) Improving the segmentation of therapy-induced leukoencephalopathy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia using a priori information and a gradient magnitude threshold. Magn Reson Med 52:1336-1341
46. Reddick WE, Glass JO, Langston JW, Helton KJ (2002) Quantitative MRI assessment of leukoencephalopathy. Magn Reson Med 47:912-920
47. Wilke M, Schmithorst VJ, Holland SK (2003) Normative pediatric brain data for spatial normalization and segmentation differs from standard adult data. Magn Reson Med 50:749-757
48. Rueckert D, Frangi AF, Schnabel JA (2003) Automatic construction of 3-D statistical deformation models of the brain using nonrigid registration. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 22:1014-1025
49. Wahba G (1990) Spline models for observational data. J R Stat Soc Ser B 10:133-150
50. Zhang Y, Zuo P, Mulhern RK, Butler RJ, Ogg RJ (2006) Structural abnormalities in posterior fossa brain tumor survivors: a voxel-based morphometry study based on free-form deformation. International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, 14th Scientific Meeting. 2006. Seattle, WA
51. Reddick WE, Glass JO, Helton KJ, Langston JW, Xiong X, Pui C-H (2005) Leukoencephalopathy prevalence in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia with high-dose methotrexate. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2615:1263-1269
52. Reddick WE, Glass JO, Helton KJ, Langston JW, Chin-Shang L, Pui C-H (2005) A quantitative MRI assessment of leukoencephalopathy in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia without irradiation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26:2371-2377
53. Ji Q, Glass JO, Reddick WE (2007) A novel, fast entropy-minimization algorithm for bias field correction in MR images. Magn Reson Imaging 25:259-264
54. Glass JO, Ji Q, Glas LS, Reddick WE (2003) Prediction of total cerebral tissue volumes in normal appearing brain from subsampled segmentation volumes. Magn Reson Imaging 21:977-982
55. Reddick WE, Glass JO, Cook EN, Elkin TD, Deaton R (1997) Automated segmentation and classification of multispectral magnetic resonance images of brain using artificial neural networks. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 16:911-918
56. Reddick WE, Johnson DP, Glass JO, Zhang Y, Laningham FH, Pui C-H (2006) Voxel-based analysis of leukoencephalopathy in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia without irradiation. Workshop on Frontiers in Metabolic, Molecular and Clinical MR Imaging. 2006. Pocono Manor, PA. International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine
57. Mabbott DJ, Noseworthy M, Bouffet E, Laughlin S, Rockel C (2006) White matter growth as a mechanism of cognitive development in children. Neuroimage 33:936-946
58. Reddick WE, Shan ZY, Glass JO, Helton S, Xiong X, Wu S, Bonner MJ, Howard SC, Christensen R, Khan RB, Pui C-H, Mulhern RK (2006) Smaller white matter volumes are associated with larger deficits in attention and learning among long-term survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer 106:941-949
59. Mennes M, Stiers P, Vandenbussche E, Vercruysse G, Uyttebroeck A, De Meyer G, Van Cool SW (2005) Attention and information processing in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with chemotherapy only. Pediatr Blood Cancer 44:479-486
60. Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000) Principles of neural science. McGraw-Hill, New York
61. Buxton RB, Frank LR, Wong EC, Siewert B, Warach S, Edelman RR (1998) A general kinetic model for quantitative perfusion imaging with arterial spin labeling. Magn Reson Med 40:383-396
62. Williams DS, Detre JA, Leigh JS, Koretsky AP (1992) Magnetic resonance imaging of perfusion using spin inversion of arterial water. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89:212-216
63. Roberts DA, Detre JA, Bolinger L, Insko EK, Leigh JS (1994) Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain perfusion at 1.5 T using steady-state inversion of arterial water. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91:33-37
64. Harila-Saari A, Ahonen A, Vainionpaa L, Paakko E, Pyhtinen J, Himanen S, Torniainen P, Lanning BM (1997) Brain perfusion after treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Nucl Med 38:82-88
65. Osterlundh G, Bjure J, Lannering B, Kjellmer I, Uvebrant P, Marky I (1997) Studies of cerebral blood flow in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: case reports of six children treated with methotrexate examined by single photon emission computed tomography. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 19:28-34
66. Vera P, Rohrlich P, Stievenart JL, Elmaleh M, Duval M, Bonnin F, Bok B, Vilmer E (1999) Contribution of single-photon emission computed tomography in the diagnosis and follow-up of CNS toxicity of a cytarabine-containing regimen in pediatric leukemia. J Clin Oncol 17:2804-2810
67. Paakko E, Lehtinen SS, Harila-Saari A, Ahonen A, Jauhiainen J, Torniainen P, Pyhtinen J, Lanning M (2003) Perfusion MRI and SPECT of brain after treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Med Pediatr Oncol 40:88-92
68. Lee MC, Cha S, Chang S, Nelson SJ (2006) Partial-volume model for determining white matter and gray matter cerebral blood volume for analysis of gliomas. J Magn Reson Imaging 23:257-266
69. Le Bihan D, Mangin JF, Poupon C, Clark CA, Pappata S, Molko N, Chabriat H (2001) Diffusion tensor imaging: concepts and applications. J Magn Reson Imaging 13:534-546
70. Basser PJ, Jones DK (2002) Diffusion-tensor MRI: theory, experimental design and data analysis - a technical review. NMR Biomed 15:456-467
71. Koay CG, Chang L-C, Carew JD, Pierpaoli C, Basser PJ (2006) A unifying theoretical and algorithmic framework for least squares methods of estimation in diffusion tensor imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 182:115-125
72. Ziereisen F, Dan B, Azzi N, Ferster A, Damry N, Christophe C (2006) Reversible acute methotrexate leukoencephalopathy: atypical brain MR imaging features. Pediatr Radiol 36:205-212
73. Maeda M, Hayakawa J, Ueda T, Migita M, Asano T, Fukunaga Y, Amano Y (2005) Brain white matter changes during treatment of a child for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Nippon Med Sch 72:252-253
74. Sandoval C, Kutscher M, Jayabose S, Tenner M (2003) Neurotoxicity of intrathecal methotrexate: MR imaging findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 24:1887-1890
75. Kuker W, Bader P, Herrlinger U, Heckl S, Nagele T (2005) Transient encephalopathy after intrathecal methotrexate chemotherapy: diffusion-weighted MRI. J Neurooncol 73:47-49
76. Rollins N, Winick N, Bash R, Booth T (2004) Acute methotrexate neurotoxicity: findings on diffusion-weighted imaging and correlation with clinical outcome. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 25:1688-1695
77. Fisher MJ, Khademian ZP, Simon EM, Zimmerman RA, Bilaniuk LT (2005) Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of early methotrexate-related neurotoxicity in children. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 26:1686-1689
78. Haykin ME, Gorman M, van Hoff J, Fulbright RK, Bachring JM (2006) Diffusion-weighted MRI correlates of subacute methotrexate-related neurotoxicity. J Neurooncol 76:153-157
79. Khong P-L, Leung LHT, Fung ASM, Fong DYT, Qiu D, Kwong DLW, Ooi G-C, McAlanon G, Cao G, Chan GCF (2006) White matter anisotropy in post-treatment childhood cancer survivors: preliminary evidence of association with neurocognitive function. J Clin Oncol 24:884-890
80. Leung LHT, Ooi G-C, Kwong DLW, Chan GCF, Cao G, Khong P-L (2004) White-matter diffusion anisotropy after chemo-irradiation: a statistical parametric mapping study and histogram analysis. Neuroimage 21:261-268
81. Niogi SN, Mukherjee P, McCandliss BD (2007) Diffusion tensor imaging segmentation of white matter structures using a reproducible objective quantification scheme (ROQS). Neuroimage 35:166-174
82. Desmond DM (2002) Cognition and white matter lesions. Cerebrovasc Dis 13:53-57
83. Kishi S, Griener JC, Cheng C, Das S, Cook EH, Pei D, Hudson MM, Rubnitz JE, Sandlund JT, Pui C-H, Relling MV (2003) Homocysteine, pharmacogenetics, and neurotoxicity in children with leukemia. J Clin Oncol 21:3084-3091
84. Montour-Proulx I, Kuehn SM, Keene DL, Barrowman NJ, Hsu E, Matzinger M-A, Dunlap H, Halton JM (2005) Cognitive changes in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia with chemotherapy only according to the Pediatric Oncology Group 9605 protocol. J Child Neurol 20:129-133
85. Brown RT, Madan-Swain A, Pais R, Lambert RG, Sexson S, Ragab A (1992) Chemotherapy for acute lymphocytic leukemia: cognitive and academic sequelae. J Pediatr 121:885-889
86. Copeland DR, Moore BD III, Francis DJ, Jaffe N, Culbert SJ (1996) Neuropsychologic effects of chemotherapy on children with cancer: a longitudinal study. J Clin Oncol 14:2826-2835
87. Copeland DR, Fletcher JM, Pfefferbaum-Levine B, Jaffe N, Ried H, Maor M (1985) Neuropsychological sequelae of childhood cancer in long-term survivors. Pediatrics 75:745-753
88. Goff JR, Anderson HRJ, Cooper PF (1980) Distractibility and memory deficits in long-term survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Dev Behav Pediatr 1:158-163
89. Cousens P, Ungerer JA, Crawford JA, Stevens MM (1991) Cognitive effects of childhood leukemia therapy: a case for four specific deficits. J Pediatr Psychol 16:475-488
90. Mulhern RK, Wasserman AL, Fairclough D, Ochs J (1988) Memory function in disease-free survivors of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia given CNS prophylaxis with or without 1,800 cGy cranial irradiation. J Clin Oncol 6:315-320
91. Brouwers P, Riccardi R, Fedio P, Poplack DG (1985) Long-term neuropsychologic sequelae of childhood leukemia: correlation with CT brain scan abnormalities. J Pediatr 106:723-728
92. Mulhern RK, Kovnar E, Langston JW, Carter M, Fairclough D, Leigh L, Kun LE (1992) Long-term survivors of leukemia treated in infancy: factors associated with neuropsychologic status. J Clin Oncol 10:1095-1102
93. Meadows AT, Evans AE (1976) Effects of chemotherapy on the central nervous system. A study of parenteral methotrexate in long-term survivors of leukemia and lymphoma in childhood. Cancer 37:1079-1085
94. Nathan PC, Whitcomb T, Wolters PL, Steinberg SM, Balis FM, Brouwers P, Hunsberger S, Feusner J, Sather HN, Miser J, Odom LF, Poplack DG, Reaman GH, Bleyer WA (2006) Very high-dose methotrexate (33.6 g/m2) as central nervous system preventive therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: results of National Cancer Institute/Children's Cancer Group trials CCG-191P, CCG134P and CCG144-P. Leuk Lymphoma 47:2488-2504
95. Jansen NC, Kingma A, Schuitema A, Bouma A, Huisman J, Veerman AJP, Kamps WA (2006) Post-treatment intellectual functioning in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) with chemotherapy-only: a prospective, sibling-controlled study. Eur J Cancer 42:2765-2772
96. von der Weid N, Mosimann I, Hirt A, Wacker P, Beck MN, Imbach P, Caflisch U, Niggli F, Feldges A, Wagner HP (2003) Intellectual outcome in children and adolescents with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia treated with chemotherapy alone: age- and sex-related differences. Cancer 39:359-365
97. Spiegler BJ, Kennedy K, Maze R, Greenberg ML, Weitzman S, Hitzler JK, Nathan PC (2006) Comparison of long-term neurocognitive outcomes in young children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with cranial radiation or high-dose or very high-dose intravenous methotrexate. J Clin Oncol 24:3858-3864
98. Buizer AI, De Sonneville LM, van den Heuvel-Eibrink MM, Njiokiktjien C, Veerman AJ (2005) Visuomotor control in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with chemotherapy only. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 11:554-565
99. Buizer AI, De Sonneville LM, van den Heuvel-Eibrink MM, Veerman AJ (2005) Chemotherapy and attentional dysfunction in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: effect of treatment intensity. Pediatr Blood Cancer 45:281-290
100. Buizer AI, De Sonneville LM, van den Heuvel-Eibrink MM, Veerman AJ (2006) Behavioral and educational limitations after chemotherapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia or Wilms tumor. Cancer 106:2067-2075
101. Skärby TV, Anderson H, Heldrup J, Kanerva JA, Seidel H, Schmiegelow K; Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO) (2006) High leucovorin doses during high-dose methotrexate treatment may reduce the cure rate in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 20:1955-1962
102. Bleyer WA (1995) Leukoencephalopathy detectable by magnetic resonance imaging: much ado about nothing? Regarding Matsumoto et al., IJROBP 32:913-918; 1995. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 32:1251-1252
103. Ahles TA, Saykin AJ (2007) Candidate mechanisms for chemotherapy-induced cognitive changes. Cancer 7:192-201