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Volumn 57, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 131-162

Reining in the minister of justice: Prosecutorial oversight and the superseder power

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EID: 36148955745     PISSN: 00127086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (13)

References (273)
  • 3
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    • Benjamin Niolet, Anne Blythe & Jane Stancill, Lacrosse Players' Lawyers Object, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), Mar. 30, 2006, at A1.
    • Benjamin Niolet, Anne Blythe & Jane Stancill, Lacrosse Players' Lawyers Object, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), Mar. 30, 2006, at A1.
  • 4
    • 36148967804 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joseph Neff, Duke Lacrosse Files Show Gap in DA's Case, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), Aug. 6, 2006, at A1.
    • Joseph Neff, Duke Lacrosse Files Show Gap in DA's Case, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), Aug. 6, 2006, at A1.
  • 5
    • 36148957956 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 8
    • 36148970146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Duke Case Prosecutor's Media Whirl Rabes Eyebrows
    • May 2, at
    • Oren Dorell, Duke Case Prosecutor's Media Whirl Rabes Eyebrows, USA TODAY, May 2, 2006, at A2;
    • (2006) USA TODAY
    • Dorell, O.1
  • 10
    • 36148939955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • By the end of 2006, a host of national and regional newspapers had demanded that Nifong dismiss the charges, recuse himself from the case, or resign from office. E.g., Editorial, As Duke Rape Case Unravels, Focus Turns to Prosecutor, USA TODAY, Dec. 27, 2006, at A12;
    • By the end of 2006, a host of national and regional newspapers had demanded that Nifong dismiss the charges, recuse himself from the case, or resign from office. E.g., Editorial, As Duke Rape Case Unravels, Focus Turns to Prosecutor, USA TODAY, Dec. 27, 2006, at A12;
  • 12
    • 36148970963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Investigate the Investigation
    • Dec. 23, at
    • Editorial, Investigate the Investigation, CHARLOTTE OBSERVER, Dec. 23, 2006, at A12;
    • (2006) CHARLOTTE OBSERVER
    • Editorial1
  • 14
    • 36148962997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutorial Indiscretion
    • Dec. 31, at
    • Editorial, Prosecutorial Indiscretion, WASH. POST, Dec. 31, 2006, at B6.
    • (2006) WASH. POST
    • Editorial1
  • 16
    • 36148952235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See JOAN E. JACOBY, THE AMERICAN PROSECUTOR: A SEARCH FOR IDENTITY, at xxi (1980) (A key characteristic of the American local prosecutor is the independent source of power he exercises as a result of his locally elected status. He enjoys an unreviewable discretionary power to prosecute, a power that has been consistently upheld by the courts.).
    • See JOAN E. JACOBY, THE AMERICAN PROSECUTOR: A SEARCH FOR IDENTITY, at xxi (1980) ("A key characteristic of the American local prosecutor is the independent source of power he exercises as a result of his locally elected status. He enjoys an unreviewable discretionary power to prosecute, a power that has been consistently upheld by the courts.").
  • 17
    • 36148971726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Shaw, 226 A.2d 366, 368 (D.C 1967).
    • United States v. Shaw, 226 A.2d 366, 368 (D.C 1967).
  • 18
    • 36148933063 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Martin v. Merola, 532 F.2d 191, 196 (2d Cir. 1976) (Lumbard, J., concurring) (quoting Felix Frankfurter, Letter to the Editor, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 14, 1941, at 20).
    • Martin v. Merola, 532 F.2d 191, 196 (2d Cir. 1976) (Lumbard, J., concurring) (quoting Felix Frankfurter, Letter to the Editor, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 14, 1941, at 20).
  • 19
    • 36148996947 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bennett L. Gershman, The New Prosecutors, 53 U. PITT. L. REV. 393, 448 (1992).
    • Bennett L. Gershman, The New Prosecutors, 53 U. PITT. L. REV. 393, 448 (1992).
  • 21
    • 36148981918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JACOBY, supra note 11, at 195
    • JACOBY, supra note 11, at 195.
  • 22
    • 36148960949 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Robert H. Jackson, Attorney Gen. of the U.S., The Federal Prosecutor, Address at the Second Annual Conference of United States Attorneys (Apr. 1, 1940), in 24 J. AM. JUD. Soc. 18, 18 (1940).
    • Robert H. Jackson, Attorney Gen. of the U.S., The Federal Prosecutor, Address at the Second Annual Conference of United States Attorneys (Apr. 1, 1940), in 24 J. AM. JUD. Soc. 18, 18 (1940).
  • 23
    • 36149001448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hugh L. Carey, N.Y. Governor, The Role of a Prosecutor in a Free Society, Speech before the New York State Bar Association (Jan. 30, 1976), in 12 CRIM. L. BULL. 317, 317-18 (1976);
    • Hugh L. Carey, N.Y. Governor, The Role of a Prosecutor in a Free Society, Speech before the New York State Bar Association (Jan. 30, 1976), in 12 CRIM. L. BULL. 317, 317-18 (1976);
  • 24
    • 36148941440 scopus 로고
    • Prosecutorial Dbcretion - A Re-Evaluation of the Prosecutor's Unbridled Dbcretion and Its Potential for Abuse, 21
    • John A. Lundquist, Comment, Prosecutorial Dbcretion - A Re-Evaluation of the Prosecutor's Unbridled Dbcretion and Its Potential for Abuse, 21 DEPAUL L. REV. 485, 485 (1972).
    • (1972) DEPAUL L. REV , vol.485 , pp. 485
    • John, A.1
  • 25
    • 0041172473 scopus 로고
    • Decent Restraint of Prosecutorial Power, 94
    • James Vorenberg, Decent Restraint of Prosecutorial Power, 94 HARV. L. REV. 1521, 1522 (1981).
    • (1981) HARV. L. REV , vol.1521 , pp. 1522
    • Vorenberg, J.1
  • 26
    • 36148944566 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., Ken Armstrong & Maurice Possley, The Verdict: Dishonor, CHI. TRIB., Jan. 10, 1999, at A1.
    • E.g., Ken Armstrong & Maurice Possley, The Verdict: Dishonor, CHI. TRIB., Jan. 10, 1999, at A1.
  • 27
    • 36148948710 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 28
    • 36148969045 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • BENNETT L. GERSHMAN, PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT, at vi (2d ed. 2005).
    • BENNETT L. GERSHMAN, PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT, at vi (2d ed. 2005).
  • 29
    • 84888467546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 160-61 and accompanying text
    • See infra notes 160-61 and accompanying text.
    • See infra
  • 30
    • 84888467546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 116-34 and accompanying text
    • See infra notes 116-34 and accompanying text.
    • See infra
  • 31
    • 36148996590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Alexandra White Dunahoe, Revisiting the Cost-Benefit Calculus of the Misbehaving Prosecutor: Deterrence Economics and Transitory Prosecutors, 61 N.Y.U. ANN. SURV. AM. L. 45, 47 (2005) (noting that [w]hile many commentators view prosecutorial misconduct as pervasive, empirical studies have been less conclusive).
    • See Alexandra White Dunahoe, Revisiting the Cost-Benefit Calculus of the Misbehaving Prosecutor: Deterrence Economics and Transitory Prosecutors, 61 N.Y.U. ANN. SURV. AM. L. 45, 47 (2005) (noting that "[w]hile many commentators view prosecutorial misconduct as pervasive, empirical studies have been less conclusive").
  • 33
    • 36148986540 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963). In Brady, the Court held that the suppression by the prosecution of evidence favorable to an accused upon request violates due process where the evidence is material either to guilt or to punishment. Id. at 87.
    • Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963). In Brady, the Court held that "the suppression by the prosecution of evidence favorable to an accused upon request violates due process where the evidence is material either to guilt or to punishment." Id. at 87.
  • 34
    • 36148979064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20.
  • 35
    • 33747495279 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Peter A. Joy, The Relationship Between Prosecutorial Mbconduct and Wrongful Convictions: Shaping Remedies for a Broken System, 2006 WIS. L. REV. 399, 400.
    • Peter A. Joy, The Relationship Between Prosecutorial Mbconduct and Wrongful Convictions: Shaping Remedies for a Broken System, 2006 WIS. L. REV. 399, 400.
  • 36
    • 36148937997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DAVID M. NISSMAN & ED HAGEN, THE PROSECUTION FUNCTION 2 (1982).
    • DAVID M. NISSMAN & ED HAGEN, THE PROSECUTION FUNCTION 2 (1982).
  • 37
    • 36148972163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • James Vorenberg, Narrowing the Discretion of Criminal Justice Officiab, 1976 DUKE LJ. 651, 680.
    • James Vorenberg, Narrowing the Discretion of Criminal Justice Officiab, 1976 DUKE LJ. 651, 680.
  • 38
    • 84858464056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But see N.C. CONST, art. IV, § 18 (The District Attorney shall advise the officers of justice in his district [and] be responsible for the prosecution on behalf of the State of all criminal actions in the Superior Courts of his district....).
    • But see N.C. CONST, art. IV, § 18 ("The District Attorney shall advise the officers of justice in his district [and] be responsible for the prosecution on behalf of the State of all criminal actions in the Superior Courts of his district....").
  • 39
    • 36148979411 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lundquist, supra note 18, at 490
    • Lundquist, supra note 18, at 490.
  • 40
    • 36148992680 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JACOBY, supra note 11, at 295
    • JACOBY, supra note 11, at 295.
  • 41
    • 36149001799 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JAY DOUGLASS, ETHICAL ISSUES IN PROSECUTION 2 (1988).
    • JAY DOUGLASS, ETHICAL ISSUES IN PROSECUTION 2 (1988).
  • 42
    • 36148940733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 393
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 393.
  • 43
    • 36148936853 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 400
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 400.
  • 44
    • 36148977682 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • KENNETH CULP DAVIS, DISCRETIONARY JUSTICE: A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY 207-08 (1969).
    • KENNETH CULP DAVIS, DISCRETIONARY JUSTICE: A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY 207-08 (1969).
  • 45
    • 36148973260 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1555
    • Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1555.
  • 46
    • 36148945337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DAVIS, supra note 37, at 224
    • DAVIS, supra note 37, at 224.
  • 47
    • 36148984312 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1522 (The fate of most of those accused of crime is determined by prosecutors, but typically this determination takes place out of public view-in the hallways of the courthouse, in the prosecutors' office, or on the telephone.).
    • See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1522 ("The fate of most of those accused of crime is determined by prosecutors, but typically this determination takes place out of public view-in the hallways of the courthouse, in the prosecutors' office, or on the telephone.").
  • 48
    • 36148968527 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20;
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20;
  • 49
    • 36148992327 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Fred C. Zacharias, Structuring the Ethics of Prosecutorial Trial Practice: Can Prosecutors Do Justice?, 44 VAND. L. REV. 45, 106 (1991) (A prosecutor's ethical breach rarely will appear clearly on the trial record. Often it will be known only to the prosecutor herself.).
    • see also Fred C. Zacharias, Structuring the Ethics of Prosecutorial Trial Practice: Can Prosecutors Do Justice?, 44 VAND. L. REV. 45, 106 (1991) ("A prosecutor's ethical breach rarely will appear clearly on the trial record. Often it will be known only to the prosecutor herself.").
  • 50
    • 36148997735 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Randolph N. Jonakait, The Ethical Prosecutor's Misconduct, 23 CRIM. L. BULL. 550, 562 (1987).
    • Randolph N. Jonakait, The Ethical Prosecutor's Misconduct, 23 CRIM. L. BULL. 550, 562 (1987).
  • 51
    • 36148976174 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1555 ([Pjrosecutors are not held to anything remotely like what due process would require if they were engaged in an acknowledged rather than a hidden system of adjudication.).
    • See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1555 ("[Pjrosecutors are not held to anything remotely like what due process would require if they were engaged in an acknowledged rather than a hidden system of adjudication.").
  • 52
    • 36148974025 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NLSSMAN & HAGEN, supra note 30, at 2
    • NLSSMAN & HAGEN, supra note 30, at 2.
  • 53
    • 36148943274 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20.
  • 54
    • 36148976177 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 400
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 400.
  • 55
    • 36148996950 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, FREEDMAN, supra note 15, 79-98 (describing how the Code of Professional Responsibility and the ABA Standards Relating to the Prosecution Function fail to establish rules of ethical conduct);
    • See, e.g., FREEDMAN, supra note 15, 79-98 (describing how the Code of Professional Responsibility and the ABA Standards Relating to the Prosecution Function fail to establish rules of ethical conduct);
  • 56
    • 36148955170 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Susan W. Brenner & James Geoffrey Durham, Towards Resolving Prosecutor Conflicts of Interest, 6 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 415, 436-68 (1993) (discussing the failure of the ethical codes to address prosecutorial conflicts of interest);
    • Susan W. Brenner & James Geoffrey Durham, Towards Resolving Prosecutor Conflicts of Interest, 6 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 415, 436-68 (1993) (discussing the failure of the ethical codes to address prosecutorial conflicts of interest);
  • 57
    • 0742271260 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bruce A. Green, Prosecutorial Ethics as Usual, 2003 U. ILL. L. REV. 1573, 1587-97 (2003) (exploring the inadequacies of Model Rule 3.8);
    • Bruce A. Green, Prosecutorial Ethics as Usual, 2003 U. ILL. L. REV. 1573, 1587-97 (2003) (exploring the inadequacies of Model Rule 3.8);
  • 58
    • 36148952612 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H. Richard Uviller, Commentary: The Virtuous Prosecutor in Quest of an Ethical Standard, 71 MICH. L. REV. 1145, 1145-66 (1973) (discussing a number of ethical concerns that prosecutors face and arguing that the ABA ethics projects inadequately deal with these problems);
    • H. Richard Uviller, Commentary: The Virtuous Prosecutor in Quest of an Ethical Standard, 71 MICH. L. REV. 1145, 1145-66 (1973) (discussing a number of ethical concerns that prosecutors face and arguing that the ABA ethics projects inadequately deal with these problems);
  • 59
    • 36148929138 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 53-66 noting the vagueness of the do justice decree and attempting to provide clarity to the ethical codes
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 53-66 (noting the vagueness of the "do justice" decree and attempting to provide clarity to the ethical codes).
  • 60
    • 36148936087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 436
    • Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 436.
  • 61
    • 36148929522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ABA CANONS OF PROF'L ETHICS Canon 5 (1908).
    • ABA CANONS OF PROF'L ETHICS Canon 5 (1908).
  • 62
    • 36148953387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Specifically, the Model Rules require that prosecutors 1) refrain from prosecuting charges that they know are not supported by probable cause; 2) make reasonable efforts to assure the accused has the opportunity to obtain counsel; 3) not seek the waiver of pretrial rights from the accused without legal representation; 4) make timely disclosure of exculpatory evidence; 5) not subpoena defense counsel as a witness except in extenuating circumstances; and 6 refrain from making inflammatory extrajudicial statements regarding the accused. MODEL RULES OF PROF'L CONDUCT R. 3.8 (2003).
    • Specifically, the Model Rules require that prosecutors 1) refrain from prosecuting charges that they know are not supported by probable cause; 2) make "reasonable efforts" to assure the accused has the opportunity to obtain counsel; 3) not seek the waiver of pretrial rights from the accused without legal representation; 4) make timely disclosure of exculpatory evidence; 5) not subpoena defense counsel as a witness except in extenuating circumstances; and 6) refrain from making inflammatory extrajudicial statements regarding the accused. MODEL RULES OF PROF'L CONDUCT R. 3.8 (2003).
  • 63
    • 36148954800 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The commentary to the Model Rules states, A prosecutor has the responsibility of a minister of justice and not simply that of an advocate. Id. cmt. 1.
    • The commentary to the Model Rules states, "A prosecutor has the responsibility of a minister of justice and not simply that of an advocate." Id. cmt. 1.
  • 64
    • 36148974027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 445; Bruce A. Green, Why Should Prosecutors Seek Justice?, 26 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 607, 622 (1999).
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 445; Bruce A. Green, Why Should Prosecutors Seek Justice?, 26 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 607, 622 (1999).
  • 65
    • 36148970967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Green, supra note 52, at 622
    • Green, supra note 52, at 622.
  • 66
    • 36148955522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JACOBY, supra note 11, at xv
    • JACOBY, supra note 11, at xv.
  • 67
    • 36148943631 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 416;
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 416;
  • 68
    • 36148942553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 106
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 106.
  • 69
    • 36148952611 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The chief prosecutor is an elected official in every state except Alaska, Connecticut, and New Jersey. STEVEN W. PERRY, PROSECUTORS IN STATE COURTS, 2005, at 2 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Bulletin No. NCJ No. 213799, July 2006), available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/psc05.pdf. In the District of Columbia, the chief prosecutor is also unelected.
    • The chief prosecutor is an elected official in every state except Alaska, Connecticut, and New Jersey. STEVEN W. PERRY, PROSECUTORS IN STATE COURTS, 2005, at 2 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, Bulletin No. NCJ No. 213799, July 2006), available at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/psc05.pdf. In the District of Columbia, the chief prosecutor is also unelected.
  • 70
    • 36148964844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 71
    • 36148980910 scopus 로고
    • In Search of the Virtuous Prosecutor: A Conceptual Framework, 15 AM
    • Stanley Z. Fisher, In Search of the Virtuous Prosecutor: A Conceptual Framework, 15 AM. J. CRIM. L. 197, 205 (1988).
    • (1988) J. CRIM , vol.50 , Issue.197 , pp. 205
    • Fisher, S.Z.1
  • 72
    • 36148947235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Monroe H. Freedman, Professional Discipline of Prosecutors: A Response to Professor Zacharias, 30 HOFSTRA L. REV. 121, 125-26 (2001). As Harvard University Professor Alan Dershowitz quipped, Winning has become more important than doing justice. Nobody runs for the Senate saying I did justice.
    • Monroe H. Freedman, Professional Discipline of Prosecutors: A Response to Professor Zacharias, 30 HOFSTRA L. REV. 121, 125-26 (2001). As Harvard University Professor Alan Dershowitz quipped, "Winning has become more important than doing justice. Nobody runs for the Senate saying I did justice."
  • 73
    • 36148940734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20.
  • 74
    • 36148978650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Dunahoe, supra note 25, at 49 ([Individual low-level prosecutors are responsible for a significant percentage of prosecutorial misconduct, and, further ... these prosecutors seek primarily to maximize professional gains.).
    • See Dunahoe, supra note 25, at 49 ("[Individual low-level prosecutors are responsible for a significant percentage of prosecutorial misconduct, and, further ... these prosecutors seek primarily to maximize professional gains.").
  • 75
    • 36148969395 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • MODEL RULES OF PROF'L CONDUCT R. 3.8 cmt. 1 (2003).
    • MODEL RULES OF PROF'L CONDUCT R. 3.8 cmt. 1 (2003).
  • 76
    • 36148937630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Walter W. Steele, Jr., Unethical Prosecutors and Inadequate Discipline, 38 SW. L.J. 965, 982 (1985).
    • Walter W. Steele, Jr., Unethical Prosecutors and Inadequate Discipline, 38 SW. L.J. 965, 982 (1985).
  • 77
    • 61449181577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Neutral Prosecutor: The Obligation of Dispassion in a Passionate Pursuit, 68
    • H. Richard Uviller, The Neutral Prosecutor: The Obligation of Dispassion in a Passionate Pursuit, 68 FORDHAM L. REV. 1695, 1697 (2000).
    • (2000) FORDHAM L. REV , vol.1695 , pp. 1697
    • Richard Uviller, H.1
  • 78
    • 84858478386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CHARLES W. WOLFRAM, MODERN LEGAL ETHICS § 13.10 (1986).
    • CHARLES W. WOLFRAM, MODERN LEGAL ETHICS § 13.10 (1986).
  • 79
    • 36148931908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Uviller, supra note 62, at 1718 (Passion and dispassion are not cut from the same mentality.);
    • See Uviller, supra note 62, at 1718 ("Passion and dispassion are not cut from the same mentality.");
  • 80
    • 36148970966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 104 ([A]sking prosecutors simultaneously to advocate within a process and assure that the process is fair is inherently contradictory-and perhaps hopeless.).
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 104 ("[A]sking prosecutors simultaneously to advocate within a process and assure that the process is fair is inherently contradictory-and perhaps hopeless.").
  • 81
    • 36148957236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally Jonakait, supra note 42, at 556 These pressures are omnipresent. They are not aberrations in the system, but part of the system itself. They operate in the routine case on the well-meaning prosecutor, the prosecutor seeking the correct result. The ethical prosecutor is told that he must believe in the defendant's guilt, but the irony is that because he believes that, he is inevitably pushed toward misconduct. The venal prosecutor seeking the wrong result may be a danger, but the forces described here are more dangerous, because they will be strongest on the self-righteous prosecutor, and everything in our criminal justice system compels the prosecutor to believe the rightness of his cause. In other words, these pressures for misconduct come when the prosecutor acts like a prosecutor, internal citation omitted
    • See generally Jonakait, supra note 42, at 556 ("These pressures are omnipresent. They are not aberrations in the system, but part of the system itself. They operate in the routine case on the well-meaning prosecutor, the prosecutor seeking the correct result. The ethical prosecutor is told that he must believe in the defendant's guilt, but the irony is that because he believes that, he is inevitably pushed toward misconduct. The venal prosecutor seeking the wrong result may be a danger, but the forces described here are more dangerous, because they will be strongest on the self-righteous prosecutor, and everything in our criminal justice system compels the prosecutor to believe the rightness of his cause. In other words, these pressures for misconduct come when the prosecutor acts like a prosecutor." (internal citation omitted)).
  • 82
    • 36148975816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 426
    • Joy, supra note 29, at 426.
  • 83
    • 36148966668 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jackson, supra note 17, at 18
    • Jackson, supra note 17, at 18.
  • 84
    • 26044464922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Professional Discipline of Prosecutors, 79
    • Fred C. Zacharias, The Professional Discipline of Prosecutors, 79 N.C. L. REV. 721, 771 (2001).
    • (2001) N.C. L. REV , vol.721 , pp. 771
    • Zacharias, F.C.1
  • 85
    • 36148977686 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • GERSHMAN, supra note 22, at vi
    • GERSHMAN, supra note 22, at vi.
  • 86
    • 36148990756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Lyn M. Morton, Note, Seeking the Elusive Remedy for Prosecutorial Misconduct-Suppression, Dismissal, or Discipline?, 1 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 1083, 1086 (1994) (noting suppression of evidence and dismissal of charges as possible remedies).
    • See Lyn M. Morton, Note, Seeking the Elusive Remedy for Prosecutorial Misconduct-Suppression, Dismissal, or Discipline?, 1 GEO. J. LEGAL ETHICS 1083, 1086 (1994) (noting suppression of evidence and dismissal of charges as possible remedies).
  • 87
    • 36149000278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 77
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 77.
  • 88
    • 36148965891 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Smith v. Phillips, 455 U.S. 209, 219 (1982) ([T]he touchstone of due process analysis in cases of alleged prosecutorial misconduct is the fairness of the trial, not the culpability of the prosecutor.);
    • See Smith v. Phillips, 455 U.S. 209, 219 (1982) ("[T]he touchstone of due process analysis in cases of alleged prosecutorial misconduct is the fairness of the trial, not the culpability of the prosecutor.");
  • 89
    • 36148988877 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Morton, supra note 70, at 1102 discussing how the exclusionary rule is primarily designated for constitutional violations
    • Morton, supra note 70, at 1102 (discussing how the exclusionary rule is "primarily designated for constitutional violations").
  • 90
    • 36148995160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Morton, supra note 70, at 1102 (Ethical rules... were designed to subject attorneys to discipline, not to supply grounds for remedying breaches of the substantive rights of the accused.).
    • See Morton, supra note 70, at 1102 ("Ethical rules... were designed to subject attorneys to discipline, not to supply grounds for remedying breaches of the substantive rights of the accused.").
  • 91
    • 84858470021 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JOSEPH F. LAWLESS, PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT § 13.02 (3d ed. 2003).
    • JOSEPH F. LAWLESS, PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT § 13.02 (3d ed. 2003).
  • 92
    • 84858465842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., GERSHMAN, supra note 22, § 14:9 (discussing the rare use of contempt charges to sanction errant prosecutors);
    • See, e.g., GERSHMAN, supra note 22, § 14:9 (discussing the rare use of contempt charges to sanction errant prosecutors);
  • 93
    • 36148953619 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 454 (rare use of professional discipline);
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 454 (rare use of professional discipline);
  • 94
    • 36148931482 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Green, supra note 47, at 1585 (rare use of civil liability);
    • Green, supra note 47, at 1585 (rare use of civil liability);
  • 95
    • 36148939220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ellen Yaroshefsky, Wrongful Convictions: It Is Time To Take Prosecution Discipline Seriously, 8 D.C L. REV. 275, 291-92 (2005) (rare appellate reversal).
    • Ellen Yaroshefsky, Wrongful Convictions: It Is Time To Take Prosecution Discipline Seriously, 8 D.C L. REV. 275, 291-92 (2005) (rare appellate reversal).
  • 96
    • 36148996591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Morton, supra note 70, at 1086
    • Morton, supra note 70, at 1086.
  • 97
    • 36148977283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 77
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 77.
  • 98
    • 84858478379 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See GERSHMAN, supra note 22, § 14:3 (Under the harmless error rule, appellate courts are authorized to ignore trial errors that did not prejudice the defendant's substantive rights.);
    • See GERSHMAN, supra note 22, § 14:3 ("Under the harmless error rule, appellate courts are authorized to ignore trial errors that did not prejudice the defendant's substantive rights.");
  • 99
    • 36148939954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Morton, supra note 70, at 1100 (Suppression [under the exclusionary rule] is... reserved for constitutional violations which infringe basic rights of defendants in criminal trials.).
    • Morton, supra note 70, at 1100 ("Suppression [under the exclusionary rule] is... reserved for constitutional violations which infringe basic rights of defendants in criminal trials.").
  • 100
    • 36148971342 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Zacharias, supra note 41, at 48. (Constitutional appeals neither guide prosecutors who overestimate their obligations to defendants nor effectively rein in overaggressive attorneys.).
    • See Zacharias, supra note 41, at 48. ("Constitutional appeals neither guide prosecutors who overestimate their obligations to defendants nor effectively rein in overaggressive attorneys.").
  • 101
    • 36148944569 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fisher, supra note 57, at 199 (citing United States v. Skandier, 758 F.2d 43, 44 (1st Cir. 1985)).
    • Fisher, supra note 57, at 199 (citing United States v. Skandier, 758 F.2d 43, 44 (1st Cir. 1985)).
  • 102
    • 36148943630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Antonelli Fireworks Co., 155 F.2d 631, 661 (2d Cir. 1946) (Frank, J., dissenting).
    • United States v. Antonelli Fireworks Co., 155 F.2d 631, 661 (2d Cir. 1946) (Frank, J., dissenting).
  • 103
    • 36148983518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 84
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 84.
  • 104
    • 36148960208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 77;
    • Id. at 77;
  • 105
    • 36148976176 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also United States v. Lotsch, 102 F.2d 35, 37 (2d Cir. 1939) ([The prosecutor made] plainly an improper remark, and if a reversal would do no more than show our disapproval, we might reverse. Unhappily, it would accomplish little towards punishing the offender, and would upset the conviction of a plainly guilty man.).
    • see also United States v. Lotsch, 102 F.2d 35, 37 (2d Cir. 1939) ("[The prosecutor made] plainly an improper remark, and if a reversal would do no more than show our disapproval, we might reverse. Unhappily, it would accomplish little towards punishing the offender, and would upset the conviction of a plainly guilty man.").
  • 106
    • 70349443742 scopus 로고
    • Courtroom Misconduct by Prosecutors and Trial Judges, 50
    • Albert W. Alschuler, Courtroom Misconduct by Prosecutors and Trial Judges, 50 TEX. L. REV. 629, 673 (1972).
    • (1972) TEX. L. REV , vol.629 , pp. 673
    • Alschuler, A.W.1
  • 107
    • 36148970145 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1523 (But the existence of trials cannot check prosecutorial powers not dependent on trial.).
    • See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1523 ("But the existence of trials cannot check prosecutorial powers not dependent on trial.").
  • 108
    • 36148983134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Steele, supra note 61, at 981
    • Steele, supra note 61, at 981.
  • 109
    • 36148994042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Newman v. United States, 382 F.2d 479, 480 (D.C Cir. 1967).
    • Newman v. United States, 382 F.2d 479, 480 (D.C Cir. 1967).
  • 110
    • 84858478381 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WOLFRAM, supra note 63, § 13.10.2.
    • WOLFRAM, supra note 63, § 13.10.2.
  • 111
    • 36148938821 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g, Green, supra note 47, at 1584-85
    • E.g., Green, supra note 47, at 1584-85
  • 112
    • 36148964481 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (citing NIKI KUCKES, REPORT TO THE ABA COMMISSION ON EVALUATION OF THE RULES OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT CONCERNING RULE 3.8 OF THE ABA MODEL RULES OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT 8-11 (1999)).
    • (citing NIKI KUCKES, REPORT TO THE ABA COMMISSION ON EVALUATION OF THE RULES OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT CONCERNING RULE 3.8 OF THE ABA MODEL RULES OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT 8-11 (1999)).
  • 113
    • 36148965638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 454
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 454.
  • 114
    • 36148949450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 77
    • DOUGLASS, supra note 34, at 77.
  • 115
    • 36148938001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20.
  • 116
    • 36148942929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Zacharias, supra note 68, at 758 n.130 (surveying the various ways in which state bar associations respond to complaints filed during ongoing proceedings). Although unprecedented, state bar disciplinary charges levied during the middle of a criminal case eventually forced Durham County District Attorney Michael Nifong to ask for a special prosecutor in the Duke Lacrosse case.
    • See Zacharias, supra note 68, at 758 n.130 (surveying the various ways in which state bar associations respond to complaints filed during ongoing proceedings). Although unprecedented, state bar disciplinary charges levied during the middle of a criminal case eventually forced Durham County District Attorney Michael Nifong to ask for a special prosecutor in the Duke Lacrosse case.
  • 118
    • 36148984313 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also infra notes 131-34 and accompanying text. Nifong's downfall, however, may have resulted more from the unique confluence of a number of factors-top-notch defense attorneys, actual innocence, and the need to rehabilitate the reputation of North Carolina's criminal justice system-than any desire of behalf of the state bar to crack down on prosecutorial misconduct.
    • see also infra notes 131-34 and accompanying text. Nifong's downfall, however, may have resulted more from the unique confluence of a number of factors-top-notch defense attorneys, actual innocence, and the need to rehabilitate the reputation of North Carolina's criminal justice system-than any desire of behalf of the state bar to crack down on prosecutorial misconduct.
  • 119
    • 36148957237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See David Feige, One-Off Offing: Why You Won't See a Disbarment Like Mike Nifong's Again, SLATE, June 18, 2007, http://www.slate.com/id/2168680 ([I]t took a perfect storm of powerful defendants, a rapt public, and demonstrable factual innocence to produce the outcome that ended Mr. Nifong's career.);
    • See David Feige, One-Off Offing: Why You Won't See a Disbarment Like Mike Nifong's Again, SLATE, June 18, 2007, http://www.slate.com/id/2168680 ("[I]t took a perfect storm of powerful defendants, a rapt public, and demonstrable factual innocence to produce the outcome that ended Mr. Nifong's career.");
  • 120
    • 36148989658 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Mark Johnson, Disbarment of Nifong Rare Move by Bar: Protection of Peers or Few Violations the Reason?, CHARLOTTE OBSERVER, June 26, 2007, at Al (noting the possible influence of two other high profile cases of prosecutorial misconduct on the state bar's actions).
    • see also Mark Johnson, Disbarment of Nifong Rare Move by Bar: Protection of Peers or Few Violations the Reason?, CHARLOTTE OBSERVER, June 26, 2007, at Al (noting the possible influence of two other high profile cases of prosecutorial misconduct on the state bar's actions).
  • 121
    • 36148963767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Steele, supra note 61, at 966
    • Steele, supra note 61, at 966.
  • 122
    • 36148982744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See supra Part I.B.
    • See supra Part I.B.
  • 123
    • 36148964482 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zacharias, supra note 68, at 738
    • Zacharias, supra note 68, at 738.
  • 124
    • 36148976909 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Professor Zacharias articulates just three areas in which disciplinary authorities are likely to have both the wherewithal and inclination to proceed. Id. They are: (1) pretrial and trial conduct that is specifically forbidden in the codes; (2) engaging in pretrial publicity; and (3) the implementation of prosecutors' obligations to report other lawyers.
    • Professor Zacharias articulates just three areas "in which disciplinary authorities are likely to have both the wherewithal and inclination to proceed." Id. They are: "(1) pretrial and trial conduct that is specifically forbidden in the codes; (2) engaging in pretrial publicity; and (3) the implementation of prosecutors' obligations to report other lawyers."
  • 125
    • 36148974811 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 126
    • 36148944568 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 736 n.62.
    • Id. at 736 n.62.
  • 127
    • 36148935006 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id at 761
    • Id at 761.
  • 128
    • 36148947236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Steele, supra note 61, at 968-69 (Whenever a disciplinary sanction makes it impossible for a prosecutor to function, that sanction has assumed the role of the impeachment process in a way that may very well be contrary to the will of both the electorate and the legislature.).
    • See Steele, supra note 61, at 968-69 ("Whenever a disciplinary sanction makes it impossible for a prosecutor to function, that sanction has assumed the role of the impeachment process in a way that may very well be contrary to the will of both the electorate and the legislature.").
  • 129
    • 36148986543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 968 (citing Simpson v. Alabama State Bar, 311 So. 2d 307 (Ala. 1975), and Snyder's Case, 152 A. 33 (Pa. 1930)).
    • Id. at 968 (citing Simpson v. Alabama State Bar, 311 So. 2d 307 (Ala. 1975), and Snyder's Case, 152 A. 33 (Pa. 1930)).
  • 130
    • 84858478378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 42 U.S.C § 1983(2000).
    • 42 U.S.C § 1983(2000).
  • 131
    • 36148988127 scopus 로고
    • U.S
    • Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 U.S. 409 (1976).
    • (1976) Pachtman , vol.424 , pp. 409
    • Imbler1
  • 132
    • 36148940357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 430-31. Ironically, the Court noted a prosecutor's amenability to professional discipline as undermining] the argument that the imposition of civil liability is the only way to insure that prosecutors are mindful of the constitutional rights of persons accused of crime.
    • Id. at 430-31. Ironically, the Court noted a prosecutor's "amenability to professional discipline" as "undermining] the argument that the imposition of civil liability is the only way to insure that prosecutors are mindful of the constitutional rights of persons accused of crime."
  • 134
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 88-100 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 88-100 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 135
    • 36148975047 scopus 로고
    • E.g, U.S. 259
    • E.g., Buckley v. Fitzsimmons, 509 U.S. 259, 269 (1993).
    • (1993) Fitzsimmons , vol.509 , pp. 269
    • Buckley1
  • 136
    • 36148935319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Kalina v. Fletcher, 522 U.S. 118, 129-30 (1997) (swearing to the truth of facts in a certification for determination of probable cause);
    • See Kalina v. Fletcher, 522 U.S. 118, 129-30 (1997) (swearing to the truth of facts in a certification for determination of probable cause);
  • 137
    • 36148967424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Buckley, 509 U.S. at 275, 278 (manufacturing false evidence and making statements to the press);
    • Buckley, 509 U.S. at 275, 278 (manufacturing false evidence and making statements to the press);
  • 138
    • 36148963766 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 493 (1991) (advising police in the investigative phase of a criminal case).
    • Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 493 (1991) (advising police in the investigative phase of a criminal case).
  • 139
    • 36148974810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Imbler, 424 U.S. at 424-25.
    • Imbler, 424 U.S. at 424-25.
  • 140
    • 36148961303 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 425
    • Id. at 425.
  • 141
    • 36148961693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a critique of the absolute immunity that prosecutors enjoy, see generally Douglas J. McNamara, Buckley, Imbler, and Stare Decisis: The Present Predicament of Prosecutorial Immunity and. an End to its Absolute Means, 59 ALB. L. REV. 1135 (1996).
    • For a critique of the absolute immunity that prosecutors enjoy, see generally Douglas J. McNamara, Buckley, Imbler, and Stare Decisis: The Present Predicament of Prosecutorial Immunity and. an End to its Absolute Means, 59 ALB. L. REV. 1135 (1996).
  • 142
    • 36148964119 scopus 로고
    • A Needed Legal Specialty: The Special Prosecutor, 61
    • Lawrence Taylor, A Needed Legal Specialty: The Special Prosecutor, 61 JUDICATURE 220, 221 (1977).
    • (1977) JUDICATURE , vol.220 , pp. 221
    • Taylor, L.1
  • 143
    • 36148965637 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 224
    • Id. at 224.
  • 144
    • 36148978049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part II.A.
    • See infra Part II.A.
  • 145
    • 36148957579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part II.B.
    • See infra Part II.B.
  • 146
    • 36148959430 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra Part II.C.
    • See infra Part II.C.
  • 147
    • 84888467546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 122-28 and accompanying text
    • See infra notes 122-28 and accompanying text.
    • See infra
  • 148
    • 84858478372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., COLO. REV. STAT. § 20-1-107 (2006) (stating that district attorneys may be disqualified upon their own request, at which point the court having criminal jurisdiction may appoint a special prosecutor to prosecute or defend the cause);
    • See, e.g., COLO. REV. STAT. § 20-1-107 (2006) (stating that district attorneys may be disqualified upon their own request, at which point "the court having criminal jurisdiction may appoint a special prosecutor to prosecute or defend the cause");
  • 149
    • 84858465836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • KY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 15.733(4) (2006) (In the event that a prosecuting attorney is disqualified, he shall certify such fact in writing to the Attorney General who may direct another Commonwealth's attorney or county attorney or an assistant attorney general as a special prosecutor to represent the Commonwealth in that proceeding.).
    • KY. REV. STAT. ANN. § 15.733(4) (2006) ("In the event that a prosecuting attorney is disqualified, he shall certify such fact in writing to the Attorney General who may direct another Commonwealth's attorney or county attorney or an assistant attorney general as a special prosecutor to represent the Commonwealth in that proceeding.").
  • 150
    • 84858465835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.C GEN. STAT. § 114-11.6 (2006).
    • N.C GEN. STAT. § 114-11.6 (2006).
  • 151
    • 36148980163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H.B. 670, 1973 Gen. Assem., Reg. Sess. (N.C. 1973).
    • H.B. 670, 1973 Gen. Assem., Reg. Sess. (N.C. 1973).
  • 153
    • 36148981541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 154
    • 84858464030 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.C. GEN. STAT. § 114-11.6.
    • N.C. GEN. STAT. § 114-11.6.
  • 155
    • 36148976539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E. g., LA. CODE CRIM. PROC. ANN. art. 680 (2006).
    • E. g., LA. CODE CRIM. PROC. ANN. art. 680 (2006).
  • 156
    • 36148973661 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Uviller, supra note 47, at 1160 (Of the several formulations directly or indirectly instructing the prosecutor in the ethical imperatives of his calling, none ... has come close to dealing clearly or comprehensively with the problem of conflicting interests.); cf. Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 436 (arguing that past attempts to codify prosecutorial ethics have not paid sufficient attention to conflicts of interest).
    • See, e.g., Uviller, supra note 47, at 1160 ("Of the several formulations directly or indirectly instructing the prosecutor in the ethical imperatives of his calling, none ... has come close to dealing clearly or comprehensively with the problem of conflicting interests."); cf. Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 436 (arguing that past attempts to codify prosecutorial ethics have not paid sufficient attention to conflicts of interest).
  • 157
    • 36148958730 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 471-72 (Not having an identifiable client, [the prosecutor] does not have a readily available benchmark to be used in determining whether he has a conflict.).
    • Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 471-72 ("Not having an identifiable client, [the prosecutor] does not have a readily available benchmark to be used in determining whether he has a conflict.").
  • 158
    • 36148995579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 57
    • Zacharias, supra note 41, at 57.
  • 159
    • 36148943275 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wright v. United States, 732 F.2d 1048, 1056 (2d Cir. 1984).
    • Wright v. United States, 732 F.2d 1048, 1056 (2d Cir. 1984).
  • 160
    • 36148997736 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Young v. United States ex rel. Vuitton et Fils S.A., 481 U.S. 787, 807 (1987) (In a case where a prosecutor represents an interested party, however, the ethics of the legal profession require that an interest other than the Government's be taken into account. Given this inherent conflict in roles, there is no need to speculate whether the prosecutor will be subject to extraneous influence.);
    • See Young v. United States ex rel. Vuitton et Fils S.A., 481 U.S. 787, 807 (1987) ("In a case where a prosecutor represents an interested party, however, the ethics of the legal profession require that an interest other than the Government's be taken into account. Given this inherent conflict in roles, there is no need to speculate whether the prosecutor will be subject to extraneous influence.");
  • 161
    • 36148945339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Marshall v. Jerrico, Inc., 446 U.S. 238, 249-50 (1980) (A scheme injecting a personal interest, financial or otherwise, into the enforcement process may bring irrelevant or impermissible factors into the prosecutorial decision and in some contexts raise serious constitutional questions.);
    • Marshall v. Jerrico, Inc., 446 U.S. 238, 249-50 (1980) ("A scheme injecting a personal interest, financial or otherwise, into the enforcement process may bring irrelevant or impermissible factors into the prosecutorial decision and in some contexts raise serious constitutional questions.");
  • 162
    • 36148974026 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ganger v. Peyton, 379 F.2d 709, 714 (4th Cir. 1967) (affirming the reversal of a domestic dispute conviction when the prosecuting attorney was retained to represent the wife of the defendant in a divorce proceeding).
    • Ganger v. Peyton, 379 F.2d 709, 714 (4th Cir. 1967) (affirming the reversal of a domestic dispute conviction when the prosecuting attorney was retained to represent the wife of the defendant in a divorce proceeding).
  • 163
    • 36148966667 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Professors Susan W. Brenner and James Geoffrey Durham differentiate between generic conflicts-that is, those arising from prior representations or personal interests-and systemic conflicts. Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 417. The latter are inherent in [a prosecutor's] distinct responsibilities: the political reality of having to please the electorate; the necessity of being an advocate; and the ethical requirement of being an 'administrator of justice.'
    • Professors Susan W. Brenner and James Geoffrey Durham differentiate between "generic conflicts"-that is, those arising from prior representations or personal interests-and "systemic conflicts." Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 417. The latter are "inherent in [a prosecutor's] distinct responsibilities: the political reality of having to please the electorate; the necessity of being an advocate; and the ethical requirement of being an 'administrator of justice.'"
  • 164
    • 36148973262 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 165
    • 36148995977 scopus 로고
    • United States, 341 F.2d 417
    • Azzone v. United States, 341 F.2d 417, 419 (8th Cir. 1965);
    • (1965) 419 (8th Cir
    • Azzone1
  • 166
    • 36148942177 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • United States v. Terry, 806 F. Supp. 490, 497 (S.D.N.Y. 1992) ([T]he undisputed fact that Abrams sought to obtain political gain from his prosecution of Terry is not enough to disqualify him.).
    • United States v. Terry, 806 F. Supp. 490, 497 (S.D.N.Y. 1992) ("[T]he undisputed fact that Abrams sought to obtain political gain from his prosecution of Terry is not enough to disqualify him.").
  • 167
    • 36148967041 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Commentators have advanced a similar argument regarding the inadequacy of the existing ethical obligations of prosecutors. See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1545, S]uch limits are likely to be no stronger than the determination of the men and women who abide by them to limit their own discretion, Thus, in effect, states that vest the sole means of appointing a special prosecutor with the district attorney are preserving the ethical status quo, that is, self-regulation
    • Commentators have advanced a similar argument regarding the inadequacy of the existing ethical obligations of prosecutors. See Vorenberg, supra note 19, at 1545 ("[S]uch limits are likely to be no stronger than the determination of the men and women who abide by them to limit their own discretion."). Thus, in effect, states that vest the sole means of appointing a special prosecutor with the district attorney are preserving the ethical status quo - that is, self-regulation.
  • 168
    • 36148934607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 444 (The prosecutor... is faced with making the decision [to withdraw] on his own, followed by the political reality of having to make his reasons for withdrawal public, thus placing his decision in the political arena.).
    • See Brenner & Durham, supra note 47, at 444 ("The prosecutor... is faced with making the decision [to withdraw] on his own, followed by the political reality of having to make his reasons for withdrawal public, thus placing his decision in the political arena.").
  • 169
    • 36148993688 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John Stevenson & Adam Playford, Nifong: Some Criticism May Be Justified, HERALDSUN (Durham, N.C), July 29, 2006, at A1.
    • John Stevenson & Adam Playford, Nifong: Some Criticism May Be Justified, HERALDSUN (Durham, N.C), July 29, 2006, at A1.
  • 171
    • 36148986899 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Attorney General in North Carolina Agrees to Take Duke Case
    • Jan. 14, at
    • Duff Wilson, Attorney General in North Carolina Agrees to Take Duke Case, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 14, 2007, at A20.
    • (2007) N.Y. TIMES
    • Wilson, D.1
  • 173
    • 84858465831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • E.g., W. VA. CODE § 7-7-8 (2006) (If, in any case, the prosecuting attorney and his assistants are unable to act, or if in the opinion of the court it would be improper for him or his assistants to act, the court shall appoint some competent practicing attorney.).
    • E.g., W. VA. CODE § 7-7-8 (2006) ("If, in any case, the prosecuting attorney and his assistants are unable to act, or if in the opinion of the court it would be improper for him or his assistants to act, the court shall appoint some competent practicing attorney.").
  • 174
    • 36148971724 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Paul Lowell Haines, Note, Restraining the Overly Zealous Advocate: Time for Judicial Intervention, 65 IND. L.J. 445, 462 (1990) (Inherent judicial powers are those powers not expressly granted to the courts by a constitution but recognized to exist merely because they are necessary for the court's proper functioning.... The court... must have the powers necessary to maintain its integrity as an institution.).
    • See Paul Lowell Haines, Note, Restraining the Overly Zealous Advocate: Time for Judicial Intervention, 65 IND. L.J. 445, 462 (1990) ("Inherent judicial powers are those powers not expressly granted to the courts by a constitution but recognized to exist merely because they are necessary for the court's proper functioning.... The court... must have the powers necessary to maintain its integrity as an institution.").
  • 175
    • 36148936454 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Anderson v. Dunn, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 204, 227 (1821) (Courts of justice are universally acknowledged to be vested, by their very creation, with power to impose silence, respect, and decorum, in their presence, and submission to their lawful mandates, and, as a corollary to this proposition, to preserve themselves and their officers from the approach and insults of pollution.).
    • See Anderson v. Dunn, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 204, 227 (1821) ("Courts of justice are universally acknowledged to be vested, by their very creation, with power to impose silence, respect, and decorum, in their presence, and submission to their lawful mandates, and, as a corollary to this proposition, to preserve themselves and their officers from the approach and insults of pollution.").
  • 176
    • 36148936086 scopus 로고
    • Private Challenges to Prosecutorial Inaction: A Model Declaratory Judgment Statute, 97
    • Stuart P. Green, Private Challenges to Prosecutorial Inaction: A Model Declaratory Judgment Statute, 97 YALE L.J. 488, 493 (1988).
    • (1988) YALE L.J , vol.488 , pp. 493
    • Green, S.P.1
  • 177
    • 84858478368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eg., TENN. CONST, art. 6, § 5;
    • Eg., TENN. CONST, art. 6, § 5;
  • 178
    • 84858470006 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ALA. CODE § 12-17-186 (2006);
    • ALA. CODE § 12-17-186 (2006);
  • 179
    • 84858464028 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • COLO. REV. STAT. § 16-5-209 (2006);
    • COLO. REV. STAT. § 16-5-209 (2006);
  • 180
    • 84858478362 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • MICH. COMP. LAWS § 767.41 (2006);
    • MICH. COMP. LAWS § 767.41 (2006);
  • 181
    • 84858470007 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NEB. REV. STAT. § 29-1606 (2006);
    • NEB. REV. STAT. § 29-1606 (2006);
  • 182
    • 84858470009 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.D. CENT. CODE § 11-16-06 (2006);
    • N.D. CENT. CODE § 11-16-06 (2006);
  • 183
    • 84858478363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PA. CONS. STAT. § 1409 (2006);
    • PA. CONS. STAT. § 1409 (2006);
  • 184
    • 84858464027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WIS. STAT. § 968.26 (2006);
    • WIS. STAT. § 968.26 (2006);
  • 185
    • 84858478364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also MINN. STAT. § 388.12 (2006) (allowing a district court judge to appoint an attorney to assist or serve in place of the county attorney). In State ex rel. Wild v. Otis, 257 N.W.2d 361 (Minn. 1977), the Minnesota Supreme Court suggested that, under the relevant statute, [ajrguably, a private citizen could petition the district court for action... and the court could appoint a special prosecutor if it decided that this was necessary.
    • see also MINN. STAT. § 388.12 (2006) (allowing a district court judge to appoint an attorney to assist or serve in place of the county attorney). In State ex rel. Wild v. Otis, 257 N.W.2d 361 (Minn. 1977), the Minnesota Supreme Court suggested that, under the relevant statute, "[ajrguably, a private citizen could petition the district court for action... and the court could appoint a special prosecutor if it decided that this was necessary."
  • 187
    • 36148978048 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id
    • Id.
  • 188
    • 36148956271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Comment, Private Prosecution: A Remedy for District Attorneys' Unwarranted Inaction, 65 YALE L.J. 209, 215 (1955) (Following a showing by a private citizen that the public prosecutor has abused his discretion through inaction or improper action, the court would have the power to appoint a privately hired attorney to act as the public prosecutor for a single action.).
    • See Comment, Private Prosecution: A Remedy for District Attorneys' Unwarranted Inaction, 65 YALE L.J. 209, 215 (1955) ("Following a showing by a private citizen that the public prosecutor has abused his discretion through inaction or improper action, the court would have the power to appoint a privately hired attorney to act as the public prosecutor for a single action.").
  • 189
    • 84858465818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. VA. CODE § 7-7-8 (2006).
    • W. VA. CODE § 7-7-8 (2006).
  • 190
    • 36148949448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State ex rel. Preissler v. Dostert, 260 S.E.2d 279, 287 (W. Va. 1979).
    • State ex rel. Preissler v. Dostert, 260 S.E.2d 279, 287 (W. Va. 1979).
  • 191
    • 36148953618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • State ex rel. Brown v. Merrifield, 389 S.E.2d 484, 487 (W. Va. 1990).
    • State ex rel. Brown v. Merrifield, 389 S.E.2d 484, 487 (W. Va. 1990).
  • 192
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 125-26 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 125-26 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 193
    • 36148997356 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See United States v. Shaw, 226 A.2d 366, 368 (D.C 1967) (The trial court should remember that the District Attorney's office is not a branch of the court, subject to the court's supervision. It is a part of the executive department, separate and apart from the judicial department.).
    • See United States v. Shaw, 226 A.2d 366, 368 (D.C 1967) ("The trial court should remember that the District Attorney's office is not a branch of the court, subject to the court's supervision. It is a part of the executive department, separate and apart from the judicial department.").
  • 194
    • 36148949088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In re Padget, 678 P.2d 870, 873-74 (Wyo. 1984).
    • In re Padget, 678 P.2d 870, 873-74 (Wyo. 1984).
  • 195
    • 36148977684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Green, supra note 138, at 504
    • Green, supra note 138, at 504.
  • 196
    • 36149001800 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In lieu of [pjrivate challenge statutes that allow courts to order a prosecutor to proceed or to appoint a special prosecutor to take his place, which he rejects as constitutionally unsound, id. at 498,
    • In lieu of "[pjrivate challenge statutes that allow courts to order a prosecutor to proceed or to appoint a special prosecutor to take his place," which he rejects as "constitutionally unsound," id. at 498,
  • 197
    • 36148967040 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Green advocates for the courts to issue declaratory judgments that a prosecutor has abused his discretion not to prosecute, creating public pressure on the prosecutor and giving the plaintiff political leverage, id. at 489
    • Green advocates for the courts to issue declaratory judgments that a prosecutor has abused his discretion not to prosecute, creating "public pressure" on the prosecutor and giving the plaintiff "political leverage," id. at 489.
  • 198
    • 36148993046 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 409;
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 409;
  • 199
    • 36148961692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Steele, supra note 61, at 981
    • Steele, supra note 61, at 981.
  • 200
    • 84858465505 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 22, §
    • GERSHMAN, supra note 22, § 14:9.
    • supra , vol.14 , pp. 9
    • GERSHMAN1
  • 201
    • 84858470002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eg., CAL. GOV'T CODE § 12550 (2006).
    • Eg., CAL. GOV'T CODE § 12550 (2006).
  • 202
    • 84858465824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eg., WASH. REV. CODE § 43.10.090 (2006).
    • Eg., WASH. REV. CODE § 43.10.090 (2006).
  • 203
    • 84858478358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • CAL. GOV'T CODE § 12550.
    • CAL. GOV'T CODE § 12550.
  • 204
    • 36148977683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Attorney General May Supersede District Attorneys in Justices' Courts Prosecutions as Well as Those in Superior Courts, 46 Op. Att'y Gen. Cal. 385 (1947).
    • Attorney General May Supersede District Attorneys in Justices' Courts Prosecutions as Well as Those in Superior Courts, 46 Op. Att'y Gen. Cal. 385 (1947).
  • 205
    • 84858464022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eg., COLO. REV. STAT. § 24-31-101(1)(a) (2006);
    • Eg., COLO. REV. STAT. § 24-31-101(1)(a) (2006);
  • 206
    • 84858478349 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • McKinney
    • N.Y. EXEC. LAW § 63(2) (McKinney 2006).
    • (2006) LAW § , vol.63 , Issue.2
    • EXEC., N.Y.1
  • 208
    • 36148973261 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002, 1003 (N.Y. 1997) (supersession in a potential death penalty case);
    • See, e.g., Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002, 1003 (N.Y. 1997) (supersession in a potential death penalty case);
  • 209
    • 36149001044 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mulroy v. Carey, 396 N.Y.S.2d 929, 929-30 (N.Y. App. Div. 1977), aff d, 373 N.E.2d 369, 369 (N.Y. 1977) (supersession in an investigation involving allegations of corruption among public officials).
    • Mulroy v. Carey, 396 N.Y.S.2d 929, 929-30 (N.Y. App. Div. 1977), aff d, 373 N.E.2d 369, 369 (N.Y. 1977) (supersession in an investigation involving allegations of corruption among public officials).
  • 211
    • 36148963376 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Johnson, 691 N.E.2d at 1005.
    • Johnson, 691 N.E.2d at 1005.
  • 213
    • 36148988493 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., 1894 PUBLIC PAPERS OF GOVERNOR FLOWER 66-67.
    • See, e.g., 1894 PUBLIC PAPERS OF GOVERNOR FLOWER 66-67.
  • 214
    • 36148996235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Robert M. Pitler, Superseding the District Attorneys in New York City - The Constitutionality and Legality of Executive Order No. 55, 41FORDHAM L. REV. 517,522 (1973).
    • Robert M. Pitler, Superseding the District Attorneys in New York City - The Constitutionality and Legality of Executive Order No. 55, 41FORDHAM L. REV. 517,522 (1973).
  • 215
    • 36148953617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lawrence T. Kurlander & Valerie Friedlander, Perilous Executive Power-Perspective on Special Prosecutors in New York, 16 HOFSTRA L. REV. 35,49 n.103 (1987).
    • Lawrence T. Kurlander & Valerie Friedlander, Perilous Executive Power-Perspective on Special Prosecutors in New York, 16 HOFSTRA L. REV. 35,49 n.103 (1987).
  • 216
    • 84858478359 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, §§ 3.14, 3.31, 3.42, 3.50, 3.78 (2006).
    • N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, §§ 3.14, 3.31, 3.42, 3.50, 3.78 (2006).
  • 217
    • 84858464023 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. §§ 4.83, 4.89, 4.106, 4.110, 4.115, 4.122, 4.124, 4.128, 4.138, 4.144, 4.165, 4.174, 4.175, 4.180, 4.183, 4.184. Neither Governor Carey nor Governor Cuomo's tallies include any appointments made pursuant to §§ 1.55-.59, in which Governor Rockefeller ordered the Attorney General to investigate and prosecute public corruption in New York City beginning in 1972. After eighteen years, Governor Cuomo terminated those orders in 1990. Id. § 4.139.
    • Id. §§ 4.83, 4.89, 4.106, 4.110, 4.115, 4.122, 4.124, 4.128, 4.138, 4.144, 4.165, 4.174, 4.175, 4.180, 4.183, 4.184. Neither Governor Carey nor Governor Cuomo's tallies include any appointments made pursuant to §§ 1.55-.59, in which Governor Rockefeller ordered the Attorney General to investigate and prosecute public corruption in New York City beginning in 1972. After eighteen years, Governor Cuomo terminated those orders in 1990. Id. § 4.139.
  • 218
    • 84858469999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id §§ 5.6, 5.9, 5.27, 5.42.
    • Id §§ 5.6, 5.9, 5.27, 5.42.
  • 219
    • 84858464016 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. §§ 1.55-.59.
    • Id. §§ 1.55-.59.
  • 220
    • 84858469996 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id, § 4.89. For a detailed summary of the Howard Beach incident, in which surviving victims of a racial attack refused to cooperate in an investigation due to mistrust of the police and local district attorney, a stalemate that eventually required the governor to appoint a special prosecutor to handle the investigation, see Kurlander & Friedlander, supra note 162, at 56-58
    • Id, § 4.89. For a detailed summary of the "Howard Beach incident," in which surviving victims of a racial attack refused to cooperate in an investigation due to mistrust of the police and local district attorney, a stalemate that eventually required the governor to appoint a special prosecutor to handle the investigation, see Kurlander & Friedlander, supra note 162, at 56-58.
  • 221
    • 84858465816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, § 5.27.
    • N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, § 5.27.
  • 222
    • 36148997732 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Maurice H. Nadjari, New York State's Office of the Special Prosecutor: A Creation Born of Necessity, 1 HOFSTRA L. REV. 97, 116 (1974) (The Attorney General could also undertake investigation and prosecution of misconduct by a district attorney, if the Governor issues an Executive Order superseding the district attorney's local prosecutorial power.).
    • See Maurice H. Nadjari, New York State's Office of the Special Prosecutor: A Creation Born of Necessity, 1 HOFSTRA L. REV. 97, 116 (1974) ("The Attorney General could also undertake investigation and prosecution of misconduct by a district attorney, if the Governor issues an Executive Order superseding the district attorney's local prosecutorial power.").
  • 223
    • 36148947963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Carey, supra note 18, at 317-18
    • Carey, supra note 18, at 317-18.
  • 224
    • 36148969393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 323
    • Id. at 323.
  • 225
    • 36148983132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 318
    • Id. at 318.
  • 226
    • 36148975815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pitler, supra note 161, at 545
    • Pitler, supra note 161, at 545.
  • 227
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 145-47 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 145-47 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 228
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 129-34 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 129-34 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 229
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 160-61 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 160-61 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 230
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 116-34 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 116-34 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 231
    • 36148993045 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002, 1016 (N.Y. 1997) (Smith, J., dissenting).
    • Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002, 1016 (N.Y. 1997) (Smith, J., dissenting).
  • 232
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 72-73 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 72-73 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 233
    • 36148968154 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Taylor, supra note 109, at 224
    • Taylor, supra note 109, at 224.
  • 234
    • 33745300095 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, note 20, their written opinions, appeals courts rarely name prosecutors, even those found to have acted abominably
    • See Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20 ("In their written opinions, appeals courts rarely name prosecutors, even those found to have acted abominably.").
    • supra
    • Armstrong1    Possley2
  • 235
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 126 and accompanying text
    • See supra note 126 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 236
    • 36148963374 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Taylor, supra note 109, at 221
    • Taylor, supra note 109, at 221.
  • 237
    • 36148990755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Carey, supra note 18, at 323
    • Carey, supra note 18, at 323.
  • 238
    • 36148978255 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FREEDMAN, supra note 15, at 93
    • FREEDMAN, supra note 15, at 93.
  • 239
    • 36148966251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Oregon v. Kennedy, 456 U.S. 667 (1982), the Supreme Court stated that the bar of double jeopardy under the United States Constitution only attached in situations in which a prosecutor's misconduct was intended to goad the defendant into moving for a mistrial in the first trial. Id. at 676. Thus. Professor Gershman notes:
    • In Oregon v. Kennedy, 456 U.S. 667 (1982), the Supreme Court stated that the bar of double jeopardy under the United States Constitution only attached in situations in which a prosecutor's misconduct was intended to "goad" the defendant into moving for a mistrial in the first trial. Id. at 676. Thus. Professor Gershman notes:
  • 240
    • 36148937998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • prosecutor with a weak or damaged case is encouraged to commit prejudicial conduct. If he gets away with it, he has a better chance of winning. If the defendant objects, and succeeds in obtaining a mistrial, the prosecutor will be able to retry the defendant with a better-prepared case
    • [A] prosecutor with a weak or damaged case is encouraged to commit prejudicial conduct. If he gets away with it, he has a better chance of winning. If the defendant objects, and succeeds in obtaining a mistrial, the prosecutor will be able to retry the defendant with a better-prepared case ....
  • 241
    • 44849120257 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note 14, at, The appointment of a special prosecutor in these cases could limit this abuse
    • Gershman, supra note 14, at 440. The appointment of a special prosecutor in these cases could limit this abuse.
    • supra , pp. 440
    • Gershman1
  • 242
    • 36148999918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alan Hirsch, The Tragedy of False Confessions (And a Common Sense Proposal), 81 N.D. L. REV. 343, 348-50 (2005) (reviewing MARGARET EDDS, AN EXPENDABLE MAN: THE NEAR-EXECUTION OF EARL WASHINGTON JR. (2003)). Specifically, [w]hen a credible case of DNA exoneration is made, responsibility for the defendant should automatically be transferred to a different office from that which prosecuted him. Id. at 349.
    • Alan Hirsch, The Tragedy of False Confessions (And a Common Sense Proposal), 81 N.D. L. REV. 343, 348-50 (2005) (reviewing MARGARET EDDS, AN EXPENDABLE MAN: THE NEAR-EXECUTION OF EARL WASHINGTON JR. (2003)). Specifically, "[w]hen a credible case of DNA exoneration is made, responsibility for the defendant should automatically be transferred to a different office from that which prosecuted him." Id. at 349.
  • 243
    • 84858464018 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, § 5.27 (2006) (executive order requiring Attorney General Dennis Vacco to supersede District Attorney Robert Johnson).
    • See N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, § 5.27 (2006) (executive order requiring Attorney General Dennis Vacco to supersede District Attorney Robert Johnson).
  • 245
    • 36148946133 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, Office of the Governor, Governor Pataki Signs Executive Order to Supersede Bronx District Attorney Johnson (Mar. 21, 1996) (on file with the Duke Law Journal). Ironically, Governor Pataki noted Johnson's political philosophy against the death penalty improperly influenced Johnson's exercise of prosecutorial discretion, and thus was a reason for supersession. Id. (The law states that we have a death penalty. District Attorney Johnson refuses to enforce this law. I have no choice but to replace District Attorney Johnson with someone... who will not allow political philosophy to control his professional responsibility and judgment....).
    • Press Release, Office of the Governor, Governor Pataki Signs Executive Order to Supersede Bronx District Attorney Johnson (Mar. 21, 1996) (on file with the Duke Law Journal). Ironically, Governor Pataki noted Johnson's political philosophy against the death penalty improperly influenced Johnson's exercise of prosecutorial discretion, and thus was a reason for supersession. Id. ("The law states that we have a death penalty. District Attorney Johnson refuses to enforce this law. I have no choice but to replace District Attorney Johnson with someone... who will not allow political philosophy to control his professional responsibility and judgment....").
  • 246
    • 36148931906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pataki, 691
    • Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002 (N.Y. 1997).
    • (1997) N.E.2d , vol.1002 , Issue.Y
    • Johnson1
  • 247
    • 36148949844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id at 1016 (Smith, J., dissenting).
    • Id at 1016 (Smith, J., dissenting).
  • 248
    • 36148994804 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pitler, supra note 161, at 547
    • Pitler, supra note 161, at 547.
  • 249
    • 36148962472 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Taylor, supra note 109, at 224 discussing the need to formulate procedures to deal with the substitution of prosecutors in a more uniform and effective way
    • See Taylor, supra note 109, at 224 (discussing "the need to formulate procedures to deal with the substitution of prosecutors in a more uniform and effective way").
  • 250
    • 36148956270 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Kurlander & Friedlander, supra note 162, at 62 ([A] regular procedure and consistent standard for review of special prosecutor requests will serve to highlight the extraordinary nature of the power and to add a level of review assistance to the Governor's exercise of the appointment power.).
    • See Kurlander & Friedlander, supra note 162, at 62 ("[A] regular procedure and consistent standard for review of special prosecutor requests will serve to highlight the extraordinary nature of the power and to add a level of review assistance to the Governor's exercise of the appointment power.").
  • 251
    • 84858478351 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, § 4.109 (1995).
    • N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS. tit. 9A, § 4.109 (1995).
  • 252
    • 36148946854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Such a committee could be modeled loosely after Texas' short-lived Prosecutor Council. TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 332d (Vernon 1977) (repealed 1985);
    • Such a committee could be modeled loosely after Texas' short-lived Prosecutor Council. TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. ANN. art. 332d (Vernon 1977) (repealed 1985);
  • 253
    • 36148965250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Steele, supra note 61, at 982-88 (proposing an independent commission to handle allegations of prosecutorial misconduct);
    • see also Steele, supra note 61, at 982-88 (proposing an independent commission to handle allegations of prosecutorial misconduct);
  • 254
    • 36148947233 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Yaroshefsky, supra note 75, at 297-98 (same). Unlike the Prosecutor Council of Texas or other proposed independent prosecutorial commissions, however, the committee's mission would be limited to advising the executive in the appointment of special prosecutors, not disciplining errant prosecutors.
    • Yaroshefsky, supra note 75, at 297-98 (same). Unlike the Prosecutor Council of Texas or other proposed independent prosecutorial commissions, however, the committee's mission would be limited to advising the executive in the appointment of special prosecutors, not disciplining errant prosecutors.
  • 255
    • 36148954798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pitler, supra note 161, at 547
    • Pitler, supra note 161, at 547.
  • 256
    • 36148986165 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002, 1005 (N.Y. 1997) (citing Mulroy v. Carey, 373 N.E.2d 369, 369 (N.Y. 1977)). The court in Johnson v. Pataki declined to define the standard by which to review the executive superseder power, questioning whether one [was] applicable at all. Id. at 1007. In his dissent, Judge Smith argued for a rational basis standard of review. Id. at 1014 (Smith, J., dissenting).
    • Johnson v. Pataki, 691 N.E.2d 1002, 1005 (N.Y. 1997) (citing Mulroy v. Carey, 373 N.E.2d 369, 369 (N.Y. 1977)). The court in Johnson v. Pataki declined to define the standard by which to review the executive superseder power, questioning whether "one [was] applicable at all." Id. at 1007. In his dissent, Judge Smith argued for a "rational basis" standard of review. Id. at 1014 (Smith, J., dissenting).
  • 257
    • 84858469995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vesting the power of superseder with attorneys general raises constitutional concerns in some jurisdictions. Specifically, a number of state constitutions expressly grant district attorneys the exclusive authority to prosecute crimes in their districts. E.g, N.C. CONST, art. IV, § 18. In these jurisdictions, a statute that grants the power of superseder to the governor would not be unconstitutional because of the governor's constitutional duty to take care that the laws be faithfully executed. Id. art. Ill, § 5, cl. 1. A jurisdiction that vested such superseder power with the attorney general, absent an amendment to the state constitution, might be, however
    • Vesting the power of superseder with attorneys general raises constitutional concerns in some jurisdictions. Specifically, a number of state constitutions expressly grant district attorneys the exclusive authority to prosecute crimes in their districts. E.g., N.C. CONST, art. IV, § 18. In these jurisdictions, a statute that grants the power of superseder to the governor would not be unconstitutional because of the governor's constitutional duty to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed." Id. art. Ill, § 5, cl. 1. A jurisdiction that vested such superseder power with the attorney general, absent an amendment to the state constitution, might be, however.
  • 258
    • 36148986166 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Attorneys general are popularly elected in all but seven states. Nat'l Ass'n of Attorneys Gen., How Does One Become an Attorney General?, http://www.naag.org/how_does_one_ become_an_attorney_general.php (last visited Sept. 27, 2007).
    • Attorneys general are popularly elected in all but seven states. Nat'l Ass'n of Attorneys Gen., How Does One Become an Attorney General?, http://www.naag.org/how_does_one_ become_an_attorney_general.php (last visited Sept. 27, 2007).
  • 259
    • 33749170805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See William P. Marshall, Break Up the Presidency? Governors, State Attorneys General, and Lessons from the Divided Executive, 115 YALE LJ. 2246, 2253 (2006) (noting the political reality that the Office of the Attorney General has long been seen by many of its occupants as a stepping stone to the Governor's office).
    • See William P. Marshall, Break Up the Presidency? Governors, State Attorneys General, and Lessons from the Divided Executive, 115 YALE LJ. 2246, 2253 (2006) (noting "the political reality that the Office of the Attorney General has long been seen by many of its occupants as a stepping stone to the Governor's office").
  • 260
    • 84858478352 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See WOLFRAM, supra note 63, § 13.10.2 (discussing how complaints to disciplinary agencies may be motivated by a desire to compromise the political power of the prosecutor's office);
    • See WOLFRAM, supra note 63, § 13.10.2 (discussing how complaints to disciplinary agencies "may be motivated by a desire to compromise the political power of the prosecutor's office");
  • 261
    • 36148990754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Zacharias, supra note 68, at 758 noting the potential for defense attorneys to make allegations of prosecutorial misconduct to manipulate bar proceedings for tactical purposes
    • Zacharias, supra note 68, at 758 (noting the potential for defense attorneys to make allegations of prosecutorial misconduct to "manipulate bar proceedings for tactical purposes").
  • 262
    • 36148967802 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court expressed the same fears with respect to civil liability in Imbler v. Pachtman, AlA U.S. 409 (1976), noting that exposing prosecutors to civil liability would prevent the vigorous and fearless performance of the prosecutor's duty that is essential to the proper functioning of the criminal justice system. Id. at 427-28.
    • The Supreme Court expressed the same fears with respect to civil liability in Imbler v. Pachtman, AlA U.S. 409 (1976), noting that exposing prosecutors to civil liability "would prevent the vigorous and fearless performance of the prosecutor's duty that is essential to the proper functioning of the criminal justice system." Id. at 427-28.
  • 263
    • 84963456897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • notes 160-61 and accompanying text
    • See supra notes 160-61 and accompanying text.
    • See supra
  • 264
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    • Private challenge statutes, such as those discussed in Part II.B, face similar abuse. To thwart unfounded actions by individuals eager to reap financial rewards in subsequent civil actions, one recommended victims' private challenge proposal has advocated assessment of suchcosts to the victim's private prosecutor to discourage malicious prosecutions. Comment, Private Prosecution- A Remedy for District Attorneys' Unwarranted Inaction, supra note 140, at 233
    • Private challenge statutes, such as those discussed in Part II.B, face similar abuse. To thwart unfounded actions by individuals eager to reap financial rewards in subsequent civil actions, one recommended victims' private challenge proposal has advocated assessment of suchcosts to the victim's private prosecutor to discourage malicious prosecutions. Comment, Private Prosecution- A Remedy for District Attorneys' Unwarranted Inaction, supra note 140, at 233.
  • 265
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    • See Jonakait, supra note 42, at 565 advocating systemic reform
    • See Jonakait, supra note 42, at 565 (advocating "systemic reform").
  • 266
    • 36148970965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Taylor, supra note 109, at 224 (discussing the costs of both retaining private attorneys to serve as special prosecutors and increasing the size of the attorney general's office to accommodate a larger special prosecutions division).
    • See Taylor, supra note 109, at 224 (discussing the costs of both retaining private attorneys to serve as special prosecutors and increasing the size of the attorney general's office to accommodate a larger special prosecutions division).
  • 267
    • 36148997733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Model Rules of Professional Conduct require that attorneys report misconduct on the part of their peers: A lawyer who knows that another lawyer has committed a violation of the Rules of Professional Conduct that raises a substantial question as to that lawyer's honesty, trustworthiness or fitness as a lawyer in other respects, shall inform the appropriate professional authority. MODEL RULES OF PROF'L CONDUCT R. 8.3a, 2003
    • The Model Rules of Professional Conduct require that attorneys report misconduct on the part of their peers: "A lawyer who knows that another lawyer has committed a violation of the Rules of Professional Conduct that raises a substantial question as to that lawyer's honesty, trustworthiness or fitness as a lawyer in other respects, shall inform the appropriate professional authority." MODEL RULES OF PROF'L CONDUCT R. 8.3(a) (2003).
  • 268
    • 36148967423 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Attorney Gen. Roy Cooper, Comments by Attorney General Roy Cooper: State v. Finnerty, Evans, Seligmann 1 (Apr. 11, 2007), http://www.ncdoj.com/ DocumentStreamer Client?directory=PressReleases/&file= Dismissal%20Statement%20Press.pdf.
    • Attorney Gen. Roy Cooper, Comments by Attorney General Roy Cooper: State v. Finnerty, Evans, Seligmann 1 (Apr. 11, 2007), http://www.ncdoj.com/ DocumentStreamer Client?directory=PressReleases/&file= Dismissal%20Statement%20Press.pdf.
  • 269
    • 36148947625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joseph Neff, Anne Blythe & Mandy Locke, Nifong Stripped of Law License for Lacrosse Case Misconduct, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), June 17,2007, at Al.
    • Joseph Neff, Anne Blythe & Mandy Locke, Nifong Stripped of Law License for Lacrosse Case Misconduct, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), June 17,2007, at Al.
  • 270
    • 36148982743 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Joseph Neff, Lacrosse Probe Has Much Fodder, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), July 1,2007, at B1.
    • Joseph Neff, Lacrosse Probe Has Much Fodder, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), July 1,2007, at B1.
  • 271
    • 36148996948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Anne Blythe, Bills Would Let DAs Sit on Some Records, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), May 4, 2007, at Al.
    • Anne Blythe, Bills Would Let DAs Sit on Some Records, NEWS & OBSERVER (Raleigh, N.C), May 4, 2007, at Al.
  • 272
    • 36148995159 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Attorney Gen. Roy Cooper, supra note 210, at 2
    • Attorney Gen. Roy Cooper, supra note 210, at 2.
  • 273
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    • note 20 quoting Bennett Gershman, Professor of Law, Pace Univ
    • Armstrong & Possley, supra note 20 (quoting Bennett Gershman, Professor of Law, Pace Univ.).
    • supra
    • Armstrong1    Possley2


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.