Suburbs as exit, suburbs as entrance

Michigan Law Review

Volumn 106, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 277-304

  Garnett, Nicole Stelle ^a  

^a NOTRE DAME LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

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EID: 36049040659     PISSN: 00262234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (234)

1. See KENNETH T. JACKSON, CRABGRASS FRONTIER: THE SUBURBANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES 46, 56-57 (1985) (noting that, while early-nineteenth century peripheral cities modeled themselves on their urban, industrialized neighbors, late-nineteenth century suburbs self-consciously embodied the anti-urban ideal).
2. See id. at 148-50.
3. See generally, e.g., RICHARDSON DILWORTH, THE URBAN ORIGINS OF SUBURBAN AUTONOMY (2005).
4. William H. Frey, Melting Pot Suburbs: A Study of Suburban Diversity, in I REDEFINING URBAN AND SUBURBAN AMERICA: EVIDENCE FROM CENSUS 2000, at 155, 163 (Bruce Katz & Robert E. Lang eds., 2003) [hereinafter REDEFINING, VOL. 1].
5. Id. at 167-74.
6. ROBERT BRUEGMANN, SPRAWL: A COMPACT HISTORY 62 fig.9 (2005).
7. See PETER O. MULLER, CONTEMPORARY SUBURBAN AMERICA 4 (1981).
8. Set John D. Kasarda, Industrial Restructuring and the Changing Location of Jobs, in 1 STATE OF THE UNION: AMERICA IN THE 1990s, at 215, 220 (Reynolds Farley ed., 1995).
9. Kevin M. Kruse & Thomas J. Sugrue, Introduction to THE NEW SUBURBAN HISTORY 1. 1 (Kevin M. Kruse & Thomas J. Sugrue eds., 2006).
10. See William H. Frey, Metropolitan Magnets for International and Domestic Migrants, in 2 REDEFINING URBAN AND SUBURBAN AMERICA: EVIDENCE FROM CENSUS 2000, at 13, 25-33 (Alan Beruhe et al. eds., 2005) [hereinafter REDEFINING, VOL. 2].
11. See generally Audrey Singer, The Rise of New Immigrant Gateways: Historical Flows, Recent Settlement Trends, in REDEFINING, VOL. 2, supra note 9, at 41, 56-62.
12. BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 21-23.
13. Id. at 23.
14. JACKSON, supra note 1, at 12.
15. See BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 24-28.
16. Id. at 26-27 (noting that, in the early years of the twentieth century, densities in the Lower East Side of Manhattan peaked at more than 400,000 people per square mile and further observing that the same area began to empty rapidly as immigrants gained the money to buy housing in less-dense neighborhoods outside the city).
17. M. at 25-28.
18. JACKSON, supra note 1, at 25-32.
19. M. at 47-61.
20. See Nicole Stelle Garnett, On Castles and Commerce: Zoning Law and the Home Business Dilemma, 42 WM. & MARY L. REV. 1191, 1200-01 (2001).
21. Reva B. Siegal, Home as Work: The First Woman's Rights Claims Concerning Wives' Household Labor, 1850-1880. 103 YALE L.J. 1073, 1093 (1994).
22. See generully NANCY F. COTT, THE BONDS OF WOMANHOOD: "WOMAN'S SPHERE" IN NEW ENGLAND, 1780-1835, at 63-100 (1977) (discussing domesticity and the woman's role in the home);
23. DOLORES HAYDEN, REDESIGNING THE AMERICAN DREAM: THE FUTURE OF HOUSING, WORK, AND FAMILY LIFE 68-74 (1984) (discussing three approaches to defining the domestic role of women in light of the industrial revolution);
24. WALTER E. HOUGHTON, THE VICTORIAN FRAME OF MIND 1830-1870, at 341-17 (1957) (discussing the role of the family and the home "[alt the center of Victorian life");
25. JACKSON, supra note 1, at 48-49 (discussing the rise of industrialism and its effect on the American family);
26. GWENDOLYN WRIGHT, BUILDING THE DREAM: A SOCIAL HISTORY OF HOUSING IN AMERICA 75-79 (1981) (discussing the American home in the nineteenth century);
27. Frances E. Olsen, The Family and the Market: A Study of Ideology and Legal Reform, 96 HARV. L. REV. 1497, 1497-1528 (1983) (discussing the ideology of the family and the market).
28. JACKSON, supra note 1, at 71 -72.
29. See also WRIGHT, supra note 21, at 107-09 (describing connections between the "separate spheres" ideology and early suburban developments).
30. See JACKSON, supra note 1, at 136 ("For the first time in the history of the world, middle-class families... could reasonably expect to buy a detached home on an accessible lot in a safe and sanitary environment.");
31. WRIGHT, supra note 21, at 99-104.
32. ROBERT FISHMAN, BOURGEOIS UTOPIAS: THE RISE AND FALL OF SUBURBIA 129 (1987) (quoting Letter from Frederick Law Olmsted to Edward Everett Hale (Oct. 21, 1869) (on file with the Library of Congress)).
33. See also, e.g., DILWORTH, supra note 2, at 121 (2005) (discussing how Hoboken, New Jersey, boosters promoted the town as "a suburban location where one could escape "the trials of the big city").
34. See JON C. TEAFORD, CITY AND SUBURB: THE POLITICAL FRAGMENTATION OF METROPOLITAN AMERICA, 1850-1970, at 85-90 (1979) (noting that city business leaders during the expansionist era chose bedroom suburbs for their home life).
35. See GERALD GAMM, URBAN EXODUS: WHY THE JEWS LEFT BOSTON AND THE CATHOLICS STAYED 24-26 (1999) (arguing that neighborhood change began in the 1920s with the rise of streetcar suburbs and culminated in the 1950s and 1960s).
36. See BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 42-43.
37. See, e.g., id. at 67-69.
38. See FISHMAN, supra note 24, at 126-29 (quoting Letter from Frederick Law Olmsted to Edward Everett Hale (Oct. 21, 1869) (on file with the Library of Congress)).
39. Richard H. Chused, Euclid's Historical Imagen, 51 CASE W. RES. L. REV. 597, 601 (2001).
40. DILWORTH, supra note 2, at 178.
41. 272 U.S. 365(1926).
42. 245 U.S. 60 (1917) (invalidating ordinance prohibiting "colored" people from occupying certain houses).
43. Ambler Realty Co. v. Vill. of Euclid, 297 F. 307, 313 (N.D. Ohio 1924).
44. BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 27-28.
45. See generally ARNOLD R. HIRSCH, MAKING THE SECOND GHETTO: RACE AND HOUSING IN CHICAGO, 1940-1960 (1983);
46. THOMAS J. SUGRUE, THE ORIGINS OF THE URBAN CRISIS: RACE AND INEQUALITY IN POSTWAR DETROIT (1996).
47. GAMM, supra note 26, at 27.
48. Id. at 237-47.
49. See, e.g., id. at 276-77.
50. See, e.g., STEVEN M. AVELLA, THIS CONFIDENT CHURCH: CATHOLIC LEADERSHIP AND LIFE IN CHICAGO, 1940-1965, at 79 (1992) (discussing the suburbanization of Chicago Catholics);
51. GAMM, supra note 26, at 276-78.
52. See generally JOHN T. MCGREEVY, PARISH BOUNDARIES: THE CATHOLIC ENCOUNTER WITH RACE IN THE TWENTIETH- CENTURY URBAN NORTH 79-132 (1996).
53. See KEVIN M. KRUSE, WHITE FLIGHT: ATLANTA AND THE MAKING OF MODERN CONSERVATISM 167-69 (2005).
54. 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
55. See BECKY M. NICOLAIDES, MY BLUE HEAVEN: LIFE AND POLITICS IN THE WORKING CLASS SUBURBS OF LOS ANGELES, 1920-1965, at 156-68 (2002).
56. MCGREEVY, supra note 41, at 240-41.
57. See id. at 88-91, 180-81.
58. See, e.g., CHARLES T. CLOTFELTER, AFTER Brown: THE RISE AND RETREAT OF SCHOOL DESEGREGATION 81-96 (2004) (reviewing literature on this topic).
59. See id. at 25-29;
60. see also Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Bd. of Educ, 402 U.S. 1, 28-32 (1971) (ordering district to desegregate schools even if it required cross-town busing);
61. Alexander v. Holmes County Bd. of Educ., 396 U.S. 19 (1969) (ordering district to desegregate schools "at once");
62. Green v. County Sch. Bd., 391 U.S. 430, 442 (1968) (establishing an affirmative obligation to desegregate).
63. See TEAFORD, supra note 25, at 77 ("During the nineteenth century, suburban residents... sought annexation or consolidation because of the superior municipal services offered by the central city.")
64. See JACKSON, supra note 1, at 150-53.
65. See id. at 140.
66. See also TEAFORD, supra note 25, at 76-77 (observing that the expansion of most major cities through annexation ceased by 1920).
67. See TEAFORD, supra note 25, at 77-84 (linking suburban political independence to the declining need for city services and rising concerns about urban corruption).
68. See generally DILWORTH, supra note 2 (positing a connection between early metropolitan fragmentation and the development of infrastructure technology).
69. William A. Fischel, An Economic History of Zoning and a Cure for its Exclusionary Effects, 41 URB. STUD. 317 (2004).
70. Id. at 322-25.
71. Id. at 326. For further discussion, see chapter ten of WILLIAM A. FISCHEL. THE HOMEVOTER HYPOTHESIS (2001).
72. See, e.g., NANCY BURNS, THE FORMATION OF AMERICAN LOCAL GOVERNMENTS: PRIVATE VALUES IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS (1994);
73. GARY J. MILLER, CITIES BY CONTRACT: THE POLITICS OF MUNICIPAL INCORPORATION (1981).
74. See, e.g., Richard Briffault, The Local Government Boundary Problem in Metropolitan Areas, 48 STAN. L. REV. 1115, 1136-37 (1996) (describing exclusionary zoning);
75. Sheryll D. Cashin. Localism, Self-Interest, and the Tyranny of the Favored Quarter: Addressing the Barriers to the New Regionalism, 88 GEO. L.J. 1985, 1993-95 (2000).
76. See, e.g., Nicole Stelle Garnett. Unsuhsidizing Suburbia, 90 MINN. L. REV. 459, 495-96 (2005) (discussing transitional-fairness questions raised by restrictions like impact fees on urban-suburban mobility).
77. See generally Saul Levmore, Changes, Anticipations, and Reparations, 99 COLUM. L. REV. 1657 (1999) (discussing transitional-fairness rules).
78. See CARMEN DENAVAS-WALT ET AL., U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, INCOME, POVERTY, AND HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE IN THE UNITED STATES: 2003 (2004), http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p60-226.pdf (showing whites have higher incomes than all minority groups hut Asians);
79. HOUS. & HOUSEHOLD ECON, STATISTICS DIV., U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, HOUSING VACANCIES AND HOMEOWNERSHIP - ANNUAL STATISTICS 2005 tbl.20 (2005), http://www.census.gov/hhes/ www/housing/hvs/annual05/ann05t20.html (last visited May 15, 2007).
80. See, e.g., Milliken v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 717 (1974) (holding that a federal court could not include a suburban school district in a forced desegregation effort absent evidence that the district engaged in intentional past discrimination).
81. See Frey, supra note 3, at 159-65;
82. see also Michael Jones-Correa, Reshaping the American Dream: Immigrants, Ethnic Minorities, and the Politics of the New Suburbs, in THE NEW SUBURBAN HISTORY, supra note 8, at 183, 184 ("[Tlhe suburbanization of immigrants, as well as that of ethnic and racial minorities more generally, is approaching, and in some cases has surpassed, that of the population as a whole,").
83. STEPHAN THERNSTROM & ABIGAIL THERNSTROM, AMERICA IN BLACK AND WHITE 204-206 (1997).
84. See ANDREW WIESE, PLACES OF THEIR OWN: AFRICAN-AMERICAN SUBURBANIZATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 5-10 (2004). For a demographic overview of African American suburbanization,
85. see STEPHAN THERNSTROM & ABIGAIL THERNSTROM, AMERICA IN BLACK AND WHITE 211-13 (1997).
86. The number of African Americans within center cities increased during the period, as exiters' departures freed previously unavailable, and higher-quality, urban housing options. See, e.g., Brian J.L. Berry, Ghetto Expansion and Single-Family Housing Prices: Chicago, 1968-1972, 3 J. URB, ECON. 397, 417 (1976) (arguing that suburbanization led to a massive chain of moves, which mitigated price effects of racial discrimination in urban Chicago and enabled many families to improve their living situations).
87. THERNSTROM & THERNSTROM, supra note 63, at 212.
88. WIESE, supra note 63, at 255.
89. Id. at 264 ("In contrast to whites, who were most likely to have moved from one suburb to another, African Americans who moved to suburbs in the 1980s and 1990s frequently asserted their hopes in the form of a contrast between the suburbs they imagined and the city they knew.").
90. See id. at 255.
91. See William H. Frey, The New Great Migration: Black Americans' Return to the South. 1965-2000, in REDEFINING, VOL. 2, supra note 9, at 87, 95 (demonstrating that between 1995 and 2000, thirty-three of the forty metropolitan areas with the largest black population gains were in the South).
92. WIESE, supra note 63, at 16 (noting that most early black suburbanization took place in southern and midwestem metropolitan areas).
93. Frey, supra note 3, at 172.
94. See Willam H. Frey, Census 2000 Shows Large Black Return to the South, Reinforcing the Region's "White-Black" Demographic Profile 4 (Univ. Mich. Population Studies Ctr., Research Report No. 01-473, 2001) (noting that eighty-one percent of black migrants to the South selected a suburban location), available at http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs/pdf/ rr01-473.pdf.
95. Frey, supra note 69, at 95-98 (noting that, between 1990-2000, the top destinations for midwestem and northern black migrants were all in the South: in contrast, white migrants tended to favor western and southwestern metropolitan areas).
96. See William H. Frey, Black Movement to the South, and Regional Concentration of the Races 4 (Univ. of Mich. Population Studies Ctr., Research Report No. 98-412, 1998) (noting that migrants are more likely to reside in suburban locations than long-term residents), available at http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs/pdf/rr98-412.pdf;
97. Frey, supra note 69, at 99 (noting that migration to the South raised the overall educational attainment levels of southern blacks).
98. See Edward L. Glaeser & Jacob L. Vigdor, Racial Segregation: Promising News, in REDEFINING, VOL. 1, supra note 3, at 211, 216 (noting that levels of black/white segregation are now at their lowest point since the 1920s).
99. Id. at 216-17;
100. Frey, supra note 3, at 164-65.
101. See generally Sheryll D. Cashin. Middle Class Black Suburbs and the State of Integration: A Post-Integrationist Vision for Metropolitan America. 86 CORNELL L. REV. 729 (2001) (discussing black middle-class suburbs).
102. See Thomas J. Phelan & Mark Schneider, Race, Ethnicity, and Class in American Suburbs. 31 URB. AFF. REV. 659, 662-63 (1996) (comparing data on 1773 suburbs in 1980 and 1990 and finding that, of 328 suburbs with "significant" black population-that is, more than twenty-eight percent-only 87 were majority black).
103. See WIESE, supra note 63. at 285.
104. MULLER, supra note 6, at 4.
105. See Kasarda, supra note 7, at 215, 239-40.
106. See GLENN V. FUGUITT ET AL., RURAL AND SMALL TOWN AMERICA 20-21 (1989) (describing the trend between 1900 and 1980);
107. Kenneth Johnson, Demographic Trends in Rural and Small Town America, 1 UNIV. N.H. CARSEY INST. REP. ON RURAL AM. NO. 1, 2006, at 1-2 (listing current population figures), available at http://www.carseyinstitute.unh. edu/documents/Demographics_complete_file.pdf. Since 1950, the Census Bureau has defined "rural" areas to encompass the remainder of those areas not classified as "urban." U.S. Census Bureau, Urban and Rural Definitions (Oct. 1995), http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/urdef.txt (last visited May 16, 2007). Urban areas are defined to include jurisdictions or census-designated places with populations greater than 2500 and to include "urbanized areas." Id. (Prior to 1950, the definition of rural exeluded incorporated areas, regardless of their population. Id.) Urbanized areas have a population density of more than 1000 people per square mile and a minimum overall population of 50,000. FUGUITT ET AL., supra, at 6. "Nonmetropolitan areas" are defined as urbanized areas with a population of less than 50,000 people. Id.
108. Nonmetropolitan areas experienced net emigration from the 1940s through the 1960s and again in the 1980s. Nonmetropolitan areas experienced net immigration in the 1970s and again since 1990. See Johnson, supra note 81, at 8-11.
109. DONALD J. BOGUE, COMPONENTS OF POPULATION CHANGE 1940-1950: ESTIMATES OF NET MIGRATION AND NATURAL INCREASE FOR EACH STANDARD METROPOLITAN AREA AND STATE ECONOMIC AREA 35 (1957).
110. Id.
111. For information on nonmetropolitan-suburban migration, see MICHAEL J. GREENWOOD, MIGRATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN THE UNITED STATES: NATIONAL, REGIONAL, AND METROPOLITAN PERSPECTIVES 201-04 (1981);
112. Charles F. Adams et al., Flight from Blight and Metropolitan Suburbanization Revisited, 31 URB. AFF. REV. 529, 533, 537 (1996);
113. and Reynolds Farley, Components of Suburban Population Growth, in THE CHANGING FACE OF THE SUBURBS 3 (Barry Schwartz ed., 1976).
114. Edward L. Glaeser & Jesse M. Shapiro, City Growth: Which Places Grew and Why, in REDEFINING, VOL. 1, supra note 3, at 13, 31.
115. Id. at 13-32;
116. see also Alan Berube, Gaining But Losing Ground: Population Change in Large Cities and Their Suburbs, in REDEFINING, VOL. 1, supra note 3, at 33.
117. See Robert E. Lang & Patrick A. Simmons, " Boomburbs": The Emergence of Large, Fast-Growing Suburban Cities, in REDEFINING, VOL. 1, supra note 3, at 101.
118. Id. at 101-14.
119. See, e.g., THOMAS J. ARCHDEACON, BECOMING AMERICAN: AN ETHNIC HISTORY 104 (1983) (discussing nineteenth-century German immigration patterns).
120. See RICHARD ALBA & VICTOR NEE, REMAKING THE AMERICAN MAINSTREAM: ASSIMILATION AND CONTEMPORARY IMMIGRATION 254 (2003).
121. Hispanics are driving minority suburbanization trends across the United States, but the most diverse suburban areas are located in "melting pot metros" in the West that have large Asian and Hispanic immigrant populations. See Frey, supra note 3, at 174.
122. See Jones-Correa, supra note 61, at 184.
123. ALBA & NEE, supra note 91, at 254.
124. In the 1990s, the immigrant population in suburbs grew by sixty-six percent (compared to forty-three percent in cities), and by the end of the 1990s, suburbs had 3,000,000 more immigrant residents than did cities. Audrey Singer, The Rise of the New Immigrant Gateways, in REDEFINING, VOL. 2, supra note 9, at 41, 58.
125. Id. at 60.
126. Frey, supra note 3, at 155.
127. See, e.g., GERALD E. FRUG, CITY MAKING: BUILDING COMMUNITIES WITHOUT BUILDING WALLS 106-09 (1999) (suggesting regional legislatures as a way of overcoming social isolation); id. at 167-95 (arguing for regionally allocating the burdens of city services);
128. MYRON ORFIELD, METROPOLITICS: A REGIONAL AGENDA FOR COMMUNITY AND STABILITY 2-14 (1997) (discussing the interconnectedness of metropolitan regions and asserting that metropolitan problems result from residents moving "up and out" of the urban core);
129. NEAL R. PEIRCE, CITISTATES: HOW URBAN AMERICA CAN PROSPER IN A COMPETITIVE WORLD 291-325 (1993) (arguing that metropolitan regions are, in reality, single polities tied to historical centers);
130. Briffault, supra note 57, at 1141-42 (connecting incorporation and race);
131. Cashin, supra note 57, at 1995-98 (reviewing the "normative debate" over regionalism).
132. Jerry Frug, Decentering Decentralization, 60 U. CHI. L. REV. 253, 256 (1993);
133. see also FRUG, supra note 98, at 3-4 (arguing that local government law enables suburbs to "entice[] millions of people to escape the problems associated with America's central cities by crossing the city/suburb boundary");
134. Jerry Frug, The Geography of Community, 48 STAN. L. REV. 1047, 1066 (1996) (complaining that wealthy suburbanites invoke the danger of center cities to explain their residential choices, despite the fact that "these are the very people who, by moving... have been able to escape paying the city taxes that are designed to improve the quality of life in poor AfricanAmerican neighborhoods").
135. ORFIELD, supra note 98, at 2.
136. Neal Peirce, Regionalism and Technology, 85 NAT'L CIVIC REV., Spring-Summer 1996, at 59, 59;
137. see also DAVID RUSK, CITIES WITHOUT SUBURBS 5 (2d ed. 1995) ("The real city is the total metropolitan area - city and suburb.");
138. Richard Briffault, Localism and Regionalism, 48 BUFF. L. REV. 1, 3 (2000) ("[A] region is a real economic, social, and ecological unit.").
139. Edward L. Rubin, Puppy Federalism and the Blessings of America, 574 ANNALS AM. ACAD. POL. & Soc. Sci. 37, 45-47 (2001).
140. See generally Edward L. Rubin & Malcolm Feeley, Federalism: Some Notes on a National Neurosis, 41 UCLA L. REV. 903 (1994) (arguing that constitutional federalism is antiquated and unjustified).
141. See, e.g., PEIRCE, supra note 98, at 19-20, 131-32, 292, 308-11;
142. RUSK, supra note 101, at 72-73;
143. Briffault, supra note 57, at 1137-40;
144. Briffault, supra note 101, at 13-14 (discussing literature).
145. Clayton P. Gillette, Regionalization and Interlocal Bargains, 76 N.Y.U. L. REV. 190, 241-42 (2001).
146. Briffault, supra note 101, at 3.
147. See Richard Briffault, Our Localism: Part II - Localism and Legal Theory, 90 COLUM. L. REV. 346, 443 (1990) (asserting that suburbanites routinely deny that "[t]he city was the primary center of jobs and commercial and cultural institutions for the region"); Gillette, supra note 105, at 241 ("[Sluburbanites exploit the central city by taking advantage of the cultural and commercial benefits... but then retreat without contributing to the services necessary to provide those benefits and without redressing the social problems endemic to cities.").
148. Craig N. Oren, Getting Commuters Out of Their Cars: What Went Wrong?, 17 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 141, 168 (1998).
149. Cf., e.g., BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 221 ("[S]ome attractive central cities will become essentially resort areas filled with second homes.");
150. JOEL KOTKIN, THE CITY: A GLOBAL HISTORY 151-54 (2005) (expressing concern that Bruegmann's prediction may come to pass).
151. See Nicole Stelle Garnett, The Road from Welfare to Work: Informal Transportation and the Urban Poor, 38 HARV. J. ON LEGIS. 173, 179 (2001).
152. See Cashin, supra note 57, at 2002-10.
153. Id. at 2014-15;
154. see also ORFIELD, supra note 98, at 5 (describing the "favored quarter").
155. See Briffault, supra note 57, at 1134-36;
156. Briffault, supra note 101, at 9;
157. Cashin, supra note 57, at 2015;
158. Frug, The Geography of Community, supra note 99, at 1070-71.
159. See Lee Anne Fennell, Exclusion's Attraction: Land Use Controls in Tieboutian Perspective, in THE TIEBOUT MODEL AT FIFTY: ESSAYS IN PUBLIC ECONOMICS IN HONOR OF WALLACE OATES 163, 173-77 (William A. Fischel ed., 2006) (discussing the local motives for enacting exclusionary land-use controls).
160. See, e.g., Briffault, supra note 57, at 1136-37 (describing the use of exclusionary zoning to maintain high service-to-tax ratios);
161. Cashin, supra note 57, at 1993-95 (describing the effects of exclusionary zoning);
162. Fennell, supra note 114, at 177 (discussing the use of exclusionary zoning in intermunicipal competition).
163. See Nicole Stelle Garnett, Trouble Preserving Paradise?, 87 CORNELL L. REV. 158, 163 (2001) (summarizing the literature).
164. See, e.g., Briffault, supra note 57, at 1132-33, 1147-50;
165. Briffault, supra note 101, at 3;
166. Cashin, supra note 57, at 2043.
167. See, f.g., PEIRCE, supra note 98, at 97-99, 215-16. 317-20;
168. Briffault, supra note 57, at 1147-50.
169. Gillette, supra note 105, at 204-06 (discussing accountability problems raised by special purpose authorities).
170. See Charles M. Tiebout, A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures, 64 J. POL. ECON. 416, 417-20 (1956).
171. See generally THE TIEBOUT MODEL AT FIFTY, supra note 114.
172. See, e.g., FISCHEL, supra note 55. at 207-08;
173. John D. Donohue, Tiebout? Or Not Tiebout? The Market Metaphor and America's Devolution Debate, 11 J. ECON. PERSP. 73, 74 (1997) ("Diverse policy regimes can cater to heterogeneous preferences.");
174. Robert P. Inman & Daniel L. Rubinfeld, The Political Economy of Federalism, in PERSPECTIVES ON PUBLIC CHOICE: A HANDBOOK 73, 83-85 (Dennis C. Mueller ed., 1997) (arguing that interjurisdictional competition will increase efficiency in the production of public goods);
175. Richard E. Wagner & Warren E. Weber, Competition, Monopoly, and the Organization of Government in Metropolitan Areas, 18 J.L. & ECON. 661, 684 (1975) ("[A]n increase in the number of competing and overlapping governments will lead the public economy more closely to perform as a competitive industry.");
176. see also, e.g., MARK SCHNEIDER, THE COMPETITIVE CITY: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SUBURBIA 63-69 (1989) (purporting to find that tax rates and government expenditures are lower in more fragmented metropolitan areas);
177. cf. Fennell, supra note 114, at 177 ("Tiebout's ideas cannot be fully appreciated without taking into account the place of exclusion both as an attractive item... available to consumer-voters and as a constraint on the choice sets that consumer-voters encounter.").
178. ALBERT O. HIRSCHMAN, EXIT, VOICE AND LOYALTY: RESPONSES TO DECLINE IN FIRMS, ORGANIZATIONS, AND STATES (1970).
179. See, e.g., Robert C. Ellickson, Monitoring the Mayor: Will the New Information Technologies Make Local Officials More Responsible?, 32 URB. LAW. 391 (2000).
180. FISCHEL, supra note 55, at 87-88 (discussing such studies).
181. See, e.g., FISCHEL, supra note 55, at 219-20 (discussing historical opposition to metropolitan government);
182. Gamett, supra note 116, at 181 (discussing local government opposition to regional growth management).
183. Michael H. Schill, Comment, in GROWTH MANAGEMENT AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING 102 (Anthony Downs ed., 2004)
184. (commenting on Richard P. Voith & David L. Crawford, Smart Growth and Affordable Housing, in GROWTH MANAGEMENT AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING, supra, at 82).
185. Metropolitan fragmentation undoubtedly permits local governments to dress up exclusionary zoning in a growth-management gown. After all, limits on all new development serve the double purpose of excluding disfavored land uses (and questionable new neighbors) and making existing homes a scarcer, and therefore more valuable, resource. See, e.g., Vicki Been, Impact Fees and Housing Affordability, 8 CITYSCAPE: J. POL'Y DEV. & RES. 139, 146 (2005) (discussing the literature).
186. See, e.g., Voith & Crawford, supra note 126, at 86-100.
187. See, e.g., WILLIAM A. FISCHEL, DO GROWTH CONTROLS MATTER? 55-57 (1990) (arguing that some growth controls "probably cause metropolitan areas to be too spread out");
188. Q. Shen. Spatial impacts of locally enacted growth controls: the San Francisco Bay Region in the 1980s, 23 ENV'T & PLAN. B: PLAN. & DESIGN 61, 86 (1996) (finding that local controls pushed development to unrestricted areas).
189. See, e.g., Berry, supra note 64, at 417 (arguing that suburbanization led to a massive chain of moves, which mitigated the price effects of racial discrimination in Chicago and enabled many families to improve their housing situation);
190. John C. Weicher, Private Production: Has the Rising Tide Lifted All Boats?, in HOUSING AMERICA'S POOR 45 (Peter D. Salins ed., 1987) (describing the filtering process).
191. See, e.g., Vicki Been, "Exit" as a Constraint on Land Use Exactions: Rethinking the Unconstitutional Conditions Doctrine, 91 COLUM. L. REV. 473, 509-28 (1991) (arguing that competition between municipalities may reduce their ability to exact concessions from developers);
192. Nicole Stelle Garnett, supra note 116, at 165-67 (observing that affordable housing advocates in Arizona and Colorado organized to oppose statewide growth-management proposals due to concerns about housing affordability);
193. Arthur C. Nelson et al., The Link between Growth Management and Housing Affordability: The Academic Evidence, in GROWTH MANAGEMENT AND AFFORDABLE HOUSING. supra note 126, at 117, 127-28 (predicting that regional growth management policies will have greater price effects than will local ones, which permit housing consumers to migrate to uncontrolled jurisdictions).
194. See, e.g., Schill, supra note 126, at 102-03 ("[M]ost of the popular support for smart growth is based on a variety of factors that will create strong incentives for municipalities to adopt growth restrictions without simultaneously promoting affordable housing."). Even worse, some of these tools (for example, inclusionary zoning) may backfire and reduce the supply of affordable housing by slowing the housing filtering process.
195. See FISCHEL, supra note 55, at 257 (connecting rising housing prices in Washington, including units originally set aside as "affordable," to a state-wide growth-management program);
196. Robert C. Ellickson, The Irony of "Inclusionary" Zoning, 54 S. CAL. L. REV. 1167, 1184-85 (1981) (arguing that inclusionary zoning will reduce the supply of affordable housing).
197. See, e.g., GERRIT KNAAP & ARTHUR C. NELSON, THE REGULATED LANDSCAPE: LESSONS ON STATE LAND USE PLANNING FROM OREGON 39, 52-58 (1992) (discussing conflicting evidence on the price effects of Oregon's comprehensive growth management program);
198. Nelson et al., supra note 131, at 117, 134-58 (reviewing empirical literature suggesting that rising housing prices in Portland are not linked to growth management but acknowledging the risks of such programs).
199. See also BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 209-12.
200. See Schill, supra note 126, at 104.
201. See BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 26-29.
202. See, e.g., James E. Ryan & Michael Heise, The Political Economy of School Choice, 111 YALE L.J. 2043, 2102-08 (2002) (discussing the connection between economic status and educational achievement);
203. Michael H. Schill, Deconcentrating the Inner City Poor, 67 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 795, 811-31 (1991) (advocating policies that help the urban poor move to suburbs).
204. See Frey, supra note 3.
205. See Jones-Correa, supra note 61, at 194 (discussing this controversy).
206. See Been, supra note 127, at 164 ("[N]ew neighborhoods of starter homes are more racially mixed than established neighborhoods").
207. Nicole Stelle Garnett, Ordering (and Order in) the City, 57 STAN. L. REV. 1 (2004);
208. Nicole Stelle Garnett, Save the Cities, Stop the Suburbs?, 116 YALE L.J. 599, 617-29 (2006).
209. See, e.g., Briffault, supra note 57, at 1136-37 ("Less affluent localities are nominally free to compete... but if they start out having less to offer in terms of high quality services or low taxes there is, in practice, relatively little they can do to attract the affluent or increase their per capita tax base.").
210. IRIS MARION YOUNG, JUSTICE AND THE POLITICS OF DIFFERENCE 240 (1990).
211. See MICHAEL SOUTHWORTH & ERAN BEN-JOSEPH, STREETS AND THE SHAPING OF TOWNS AND CITIES 92 (2003).
212. Id. at 92-104.
213. See generally MARK A. WEISS, THE RISE OF THE COMMUNITY BUILDERS: THE AMERICAN REAL ESTATE INDUSTRY AND URBAN LAND PLANNING (1987).
214. Patrick A. Simmons & Robert E. Lang, The Urban Turnaround, in REDEFINING, VOL. 1, supra note 3, at 51.
215. Rebecca R. Sohmer & Robert E. Lang, Downtown Rebound, in REDEFINING, VOL. 1, supra note 3, at 63, 65.
216. Id. at 70-71.
217. BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 65.
218. Id. at 58-59.
219. Id. at 67.
220. Joel Kotkin, Suburbia: Homeland of the American Future, NEXT AM. CITY, Summer 2006.
221. Id.
222. Id. (noting efforts to revitalize town centers of Naperville, Illinois; Fullerton, California: and Bethesda, Maryland);
223. see also Robert Lang & Edward Blakeley, In Search of the Real OC: Exploring the State of American Suburbs, NEXT AM. CITY, Summer 2006, at 18.
224. BRUEGMANN, supra note 5, at 153.
225. Glaeser & Shapiro, supra note 86, at 18.
226. See Simmons & Lang, supra note 145, at 54-55.
227. Jason C. Booza et al., Where Did They Go? The Decline of Middle-Income Neighborhoods in Metropolitan America, BROOKINGS INSTITUTION LIVING CITIES CENSUS SERIES, June 2006, at 9-11, available at http://www.brookings. edu/metro/pubs/20060622_middleclass.pdf.
228. KOTKIN, supra note 109, at 151
229. (quoting H.G. WELLS, ANTICIPATIONS OF THE REACTION OF MECHANICAL AND SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS UPON HUMAN LIFE AND THOUGHT 32 (1902)).
230. See id. at 150-53.
231. Alan Berube & William H. Frey, A Decade of Mixed Blessings: Urban and Suburban Poverty in Census 2000, in REDEFINING, VOL. 2, supra note 9, at 111, 117-18;
232. Paul A. Jargowsky, Stunning Progress, Hidden Problems: The Dramatic Decline of Concentrated Poverty in the 1990s, in REDEFINING, VOL. 2, supra note 9, at 137, 142.
233. See, e.g., FRUG, supra note 98, at 156-58.
234. Richard Briffault, Beyond City and Suburb: Thinking Regionally, 116 YALE L.J. POCKET PART 203, 207 (2006), http://thepoeketpart.org/2006/12/11/briffault.html (last visited May 16, 2007).