Evaluation of bone and mineral disorders

Pediatric Endocrinology Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue SUPPL. 1, 2007, Pages 584-598

  Ardeshirpour, Laleh ^a   Cole, David E C ^b   Carpenter, Thomas O ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Biochemical markers of bone turnover; Bone densitometry; Calcium; Parathyroid hormone; Phosphate; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; CALCIUM; CALCIUM ION; CREATINE KINASE ISOENZYME; ISOENZYME; OSTEOCALCIN; PARATHYROID HORMONE; PARATHYROID HORMONE RELATED PROTEIN; PHOSPHATE; PROCOLLAGEN C PROTEINASE; VITAMIN; VITAMIN D;

ACID BASE BALANCE; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE BLOOD LEVEL; AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DISORDER; BONE DENSITOMETRY; BONE METABOLISM; BONE RADIOGRAPHY; CALCIUM ABSORPTION; CALCIUM DEFICIENCY; CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CHEMOLUMINESCENCE; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIETARY INTAKE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE DETERMINATION; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; HYPERCALCEMIA; HYPERPARATHYROIDISM; HYPOPARATHYROIDISM; HYPOPHOSPHATASIA; HYPOPHOSPHATEMIA; IMMUNOCHEMISTRY; IMMUNORADIOMETRIC ASSAY; KIDNEY FUNCTION; LABORATORY TEST; METABOLIC BONE DISEASE; MINERAL INTAKE; MINERAL METABOLISM; OSTEOLYSIS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PHOSPHATE DEFICIENCY; PHOSPHATE METABOLISM; PROTEIN BINDING; REVIEW; RICKETS; URINARY EXCRETION; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMIN D RESISTANT RICKETS; VITAMIN INTAKE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BONE AND BONES; BONE DENSITY; BONE DISEASES; CALCIUM; CATIONS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; MINERALS; PARATHYROID HORMONE; PEDIATRICS; PHOSPHATES; REFERENCE VALUES; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; VITAMIN D;

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; CALCIUM; DISEASES; HORMONES; METABOLISM;

ADOLESCENCE; BIOMARKER; BONE; CHILD HEALTH; HORMONE; METABOLISM; MINERAL;

EID: 36048935388     PISSN: 15654753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. Laraque D, McCormick M, Norman M, Taylor A, Weiler SC, Karp J. Blood lead, calcium status, and behavior in preschool children. Am J Dis Child 1990;144:186-189
2. Kasper DL FA, Braunwald E, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameson JL, Isselbacher KJ. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine 16th ed. McGraw-Hill Companies New York 2005
3. Nussbaum SR, Zahradnik RJ, Lavigne JR, Brennan GL, Nozawa-Ung K, Kim LY, Keutmann HT, Wang CA, Potts JT Jr, Segre GV. Highly sensitive two-site immunoradiometric assay of parathyrin, and its clinical utility in evaluating patients with hypercalcemia. Clin Chem 1987;33:1364-1367
4. Antoniucci DM, Yamashita T, Portale AA Dietary phosphorus regulates serum fibroblast growth factor-23 concentrations in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:3144-3149
5. Harrison HE HH. Disorders of Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism in Childhood and Adolescence. WB Saunders, Philadephia 1979
6. Slomp J, van der Voort PH, Gerritsen RT, Berk JA, Bakker AJ. Albumin-adjusted calcium is not suitable for diagnosis of hyper- and hypocalcemia in the critically ill. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1389-1393
7. Hill L. Urolithiasis. In: Oski F (ed) Principles and Practice of Pediatrics 2nd ed. JP Lippincott, Philadelphia, pp 1994;1834-1837
8. Sargent JD, Stukel TA, Kresel J, Klein RZ. Normal values for random urinary calcium to creatinine ratios in infancy. J Pediatr 1993;123:393-397
9. Singh J, Moghal N, Pearce SH, Cheetham T. The investigation of hypocalcaemia and rickets. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:403-407
10. Walton RJ, Bijvoet OL. Nomogram for derivation of renal threshold phosphate concentration. Lancet 1975;2:309-310
11. Brodehl J, Gellissen K, Weber HP. Postnatal development of tubular phosphate reabsorption. Clin Nephrol 1982;17:163-171
12. Kruse K, Kracht U, Gopfert G. Renal threshold phosphate concentration (TmP04/GFR). Arch Dis Child 1982;57:217-223
13. Mallette LE, Tuma SN, Berger RE, Kirkland JL. Radioimmunoassay for the middle region of human parathyroid hormone using an homologous antiserum with a carboxy-terminal fragment of bovine parathyroid hormone as radioligand. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1982;54:1017-1024
14. Blind E, Schmidt-Gayk H, Scharia S, Flentje D, Fischer S, Gohring U, Hitzler W. Two-site assay of intact parathyroid hormone in the investigation of primary hyperparathyroidism and other disorders of calcium metabolism compared with a midregion assay. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1988;67:353-360
15. Gao P, Scheibel S, D'Amour P, John MR, Rao SD, Schmidt-Gayk H, Cantor TL. Development of a novel immunoradiometric assay exclusively for biologically active whole parathyroid hormone 1-84: implications for improvement of accurate assessment of parathyroid function. Journal of Bone 8; Mineral Research 2001;16:605-614
16. Carpenter TO, Mitnick MA, Ellison A, Smith C, Insogna KL. Nocturnal hyperparathyroidism: a frequent feature of X-linked hypophosphatemia. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1994;78:1378-1383
17. Reinhardt TA, Horst RL, Orf JW, BW H. A microassay for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D not requiring high performance liquid chromatography: application to clinical studies. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1984;58:91-98
18. Hollis B. Editorial: The determination of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D: no easy task. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2004;89:3149-311
19. Calvo MS, Eyre DR, Gundberg CM. Molecular basis and clinical application of biological markers of bone turnover. Endocr Rev 1996;17:333-368
20. Camacho P, Kleerekoper M. Biochemical Markers of Bone Turnover. In: Favus MJ (ed) Primer on Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism, 6th ed. American Society for Bone and Mineral Research Washington, DC USA 2006;127-133
21. Rauch F, Middelmann B, Cagnoli M, Keller KM, Schonau E. Comparison of total alkaline phosphatase and three assays for bone-specific alkaline phosphatase in childhood and adolescence. Acta Paediatr 1997;86:583-587
22. Van Hoof VO, Hoylaerts MF, Geryl H, Van Mullem M, Lepoutre LG, De Broe ME. Age and sex distribution of alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes by agarose electrophoresis. Clin Chem 1990;36:875-878
23. Crofton PM. Wheat-germ lectin affinity electrophoresis for alkaline phosphatase isoforms in children: age-dependent reference ranges and changes in liver and bone disease. Clin Chem 1992;38:663-670
24. Schiele F, Henny J, Hitz J, Petitclerc C, Gueguen R, Siest G. Total bone and liver alkaline phosphatases in plasma: biological variations and reference limits. Clin Chem 1983;29:634-641
25. Tietz NW, Wekstein DR, Shuey DF, Brauer GA. A two-year longitudinal reference range study for selected serum enzymes in a population more than 60 years of age. J Am Geriatr Soc 1984;32:563-570
26. Stepan JJ, Lachmanova J, Strakova M, Pacovsky V. Serum osteocalcin, bone alkaline phosphatase isoenzyme and plasma tartrate resistant acid phosphatase in patients on chronic maintenance hemodialysis. Bone Miner 1987;3:177-183
27. Masters PW, Jones RG, Purves DA, Cooper EH, Cooney JM. Commercial assays for serum osteocalcin give clinically discordant results. Clin Chem 1994;40:358-363
28. nd, Blantz RC, Deftos LJ. Determinants of serum 1,25(OH)2D levels in renal disease. Kidney Int 1983;24:104-109
29. Farrugia W, Yates NA, Fortune CL, McDougall JG, Scoggins BA, Wark JD. The effect of uninephrectomy on osteocalcin metabolism in sheep: a direct evaluation of renal osteocalcin clearance. J Endocrinol 1991;130:213-221
30. Nielsen HK, Brixen K, Kassem M, Christensen SE, Mosekilde L. Diurnal rhythm in serum osteocalcin: relation with sleep, growth hormone, and PTH(1-84). Calcif Tissue Int 1991;49:373-377
31. Gundberg CM, Markowitz ME, Mizruchi M, Rosen JF. Osteocalcin in human serum: a circadian rhythm. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;60:736-739
32. Smedsrod B, Melkko J, Risteli L, Risteli J. Circulating C-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen is cleared mainly via the mannose receptor in liver endothelial cells. Biochem J 1990;271:345-350
33. Melkko J, Hellevik T, Risteli L, Risteli J, Smedsrod B. Clearance of NH2-terminal propeptides of types I and III procollagen is a physiological function of the scavenger receptor in liver endothelial cells. J Exp Med 1994;179:405-412
34. Sorva A, Tahtela R, Risteli J, Laitinen K, Juntunen-Backman K, Sorva R. Familial high serum concentrations of the carboxyl-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen. Clin Chem 1994;40:1591-1593
35. Eyre DR, Paz MA, Gallop PM. Cross-linking in collagen and elastin. Annu Rev Biochem 1984;53:717-748
36. Halleen JM, Alatalo SL, Janckila AJ, Woitge HW, Seibel MJ, Vaananen HK. Serum tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b is a specific and sensitive marker of bone resorption. Clin Chem 2001;47:597-600
37. Halleen JM, Alatalo SL, Suominen H, Cheng S, Janckila AJ, Vaananen HK. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b: a novel serum marker of bone resorption. J Bone Miner Res 2000;15:1337-1345
38. Chu P, Chao TY, Lin YF, Janckila AJ, Yam LT. Correlation between histomorphometric parameters of bone resorption and serum type 5b tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase in uremic patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;41:1052-1059
39. Bonde M, Qyist P, Fledelius C, Riis BJ, Christiansen C. immunoassay for quantifying type I collagen degradation products in urine evaluated. Clin Chem 1994;40:2022-2025
40. Clemens JD, Herrick MV, Singer FR, Eyre DR. Evidence that serum NTx (collagen-type I N-telopeptides) can act as an immunochemical marker of bone resorption. Clin Chem 1997;43:2058-2063
41. Rosenquist C, Fledelius C, Christgau S, Pedersen BJ, Bonde M, Qvist P, Christiansen C. Serum CrossLaps One Step ELISA. First application of monoclonal antibodies for measurement in serum of bone-related degradation products from C-terminal telopeptides of type I collagen. Clin Chem 1998;44:2281-2289
42. Christgau S, Rosenquist C, Alexandersen P, Bjarnason NH, Ravn P, Fledelius C, Herling C, Qvist P, Christiansen C. Clinical evaluation of the Serum CrossLaps One Step ELISA, a new assay measuring the serum concentration of bone-derived degradation products of type I collagen C-telopeptides. Clin Chem 1998;44:2290-2300
43. Valimaki MJ, Tahtela R. Serum tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b or amino-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen for monitoring bisphosphonate therapy in postmenopausal osteoporosis? Clin Chem 2005;51:2382-2385
44. Tahtela R, Seppanen J, Laitinen K, Katajamaki A, Risteli J, Valimaki MJ. Serum tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b in monitoring bisphosphonate treatment with clodronate: a comparison with urinary N-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen and serum type I procollagen amino-terminal propeptide. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:1109-1116
45. Modderman WE, Tuinenburg-Bol Raap AC, Nijweide PJ. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase is not an exclusive marker for mouse osteoclasts in cell culture. Bone 1991;12:81-87
46. Janckila AJ, Takahashi K, Sun SZ, Yam LT. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase isoform 5b as serum marker for osteoclastic activity. Clin Chem 2001;47:74-80
47. Ballanti P, Minisola S, Pacitti MT, Scarnecchia L, Rosso R, Mazzuoli GF, Bonucci E. Tartrate-resistant acid phosphate activity as osteoclastic marker: sensitivity of cytochemical assessment and serum assay in comparison with standardized osteoclast histomorphometry. Osteoporos Int 1997;7:39-43
48. Garnero P, Shih WJ, Gineyts E, Karpf DB, Delmas PD. Comparison of new biochemical markers of bone turnover in late postmenopausal osteoporotic women in response to alendronate treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:1693-1700
49. Prestwood KM, Pilbeam CC, Burleson JA, Woodiel FN, Delmas PD, Deftos LJ, Raisz LG. The short-term effects of conjugated estrogen on bone turnover in older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:366-371
50. Chesnut CH, 3rd, Bell NH, Clark GS, Drinkwater BL, English SC, Johnson CC Jr, Notelovitz M, Rosen C, Cain DF, Flessland KA, Mallinak NJ. Hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women: urinary N-telopeptide of type I collagen monitors therapeutic effect and predicts response of bone mineral density. Am J Med 1997;102:29-37
51. Bollen AM, Eyre DR. Bone resorption rates in children monitored by the urinary assay of collagen type I cross-linked peptides. Bone 1994;15:31-34
52. Penniston KL, Tanumihardjo SA. The acute and chronic toxic effects of vitamin A. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:191-201
53. Penniston KL, Weng N, Binkley N, Tanumihardjo SA. Serum retinyl esters are not elevated in postmenopausal women with and without osteoporosis whose preformed vitamin A intakes are high. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;84:1350-1356
54. Frame B, Jackson CE, Reynolds WA, Umphrey JE. Hypercalcemia and skeletal effects in chronic hypervitaminosis A. Ann Intern Med 1974;80:44-48
55. Ellis JK, Russell RM, Makrauer FL, Schaefer EJ. Increased risk for vitamin A toxicity in severe hypertriglyceridemia. Ann Intern Med 1986;105:877-879
56. Krasinski SD, Russell RM, Otradovec CL, Sadowski JA, Hartz SC, Jacob RA, McGandy RB. Relationship of vitamin A and vitamin E intake to fasting plasma retinol, retinol-binding protein, retinyl esters, carotene, alpha-tocopherol, and cholesterol among elderly people and young adults: increased plasma retinyl esters among vitamin A-supplement users. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:112-120
57. Myhre AM, Carlsen MH, Bohn SK, Wold HL, Laake P, Blomhoff R. Water-miscible, emulsified, and solid forms of retinol supplements are more toxic than oil-based preparations. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;78:1152-1159
58. Sauvant P, Mekki N, Charbonnier M, Portugal H, Lairon D, Borel P. Amounts and types of fatty acids in meals affect the pattern of retinoids secreted in human chylomicrons after a high-dose preformed vitamin A intake. Metabolism 2003;52:514-519
59. Croquet V, Pilette C, Lespine A, Vuillemin E, Rousselet MC, Oberti F, Saint Andre JP, Periquet B, Francois S, Ifrah N, Cales P. Hepatic hypervitaminosis A: importance of retinyl ester level determination. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2000;12:361-364
60. Suva LJ, Winslow GA, Wettenhall RE, Hammonds RG, Moseley JM, Diefenbach-Jagger H, Rodda CP, Kemp BE, Rodriguez H, Chen EY. A parathyroid hormone-related protein implicated in malignant hypercalcemia: cloning and expression. Science 1987;237:893-896
61. Philbrick WM, Wysolmerski JJ, Galbraith S, Holt E, Orloff JJ, Yang KH, Vasavada RC, Weir EC, Broadus AE, Stewart AF. Defining the roles of parathyroid hormone-related protein in normal physiology. Physiol Rev 1996;76:127-173
62. Broadus AE, Mangin M, Ikeda K, Insogna KL, Weir EC, Burtis WJ, Stewart AF. Humoral hypercalcemia of cancer. Identification of a novel parathyroid hormone-like peptide. N Engl J Med 1988;319:556-563
63. Strewler GJ, Stern PH, Jacobs JW, Eveloff J, Klein RF, Leung SC, Rosenblatt M, Nissenson RA. Parathyroid hormonelike protein from human renal carcinoma cells. Structural and functional homology with parathyroid hormone. J Clin Invest 1987;80:1803-1807
64. Kronenberg HM 2003 Developmental regulation of the growth plate. Nature 423:332-6
65. Karaplis AC, Luz A, Glowacki J, Bronson RT, Tybulewicz VL, Kronenberg HM, Mulligan RC. Lethal skeletal dysplasia from targeted disruption of the parathyroid hormone-related peptide gene. Genes Dev 1994;8:277-289
66. Broadus AE, Nissenson RA. Parathyroid Hormone-Related Protein. In: Favus MJ (ed) Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism, 6th ed. American Society for Bone and Mineral research, Washington, DC USA 2006;99-106
67. Wysolmerski JJ, Philbrick WM, Dunbar ME, Lanske B, Kronenberg H, Broadus AE. Rescue of the parathyroid hormone-related protein knockout mouse demonstrates that parathyroid hormone-related protein is essential for mammary gland development. Development 1998; 125:1285-1294
68. Wysolmerski JJ, McCaughern-Carucci JF, Daifotis AG, Broadus AE, Philbrick WM. Overexpression of parathyroid hormone-related protein or parathyroid hormone in transgenic mice impairs branching morphogenesis during mammary gland development. Development 1995;121:3539-3547
69. Wysolmerski JJ, Cormier S, Philbrick WM, Dann P, Zhang JP, Roume J, Delezoide AL, Silve C. Absence of functional type 1 parathyroid hormone (PTH)/PTH-related protein receptors in humans is associated with abnormal breast development and tooth impaction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1788-1794
70. Strewler GJ. The physiology of parathyroid hormone-related protein. N Engl J Med 2000;342:177-185
71. VanHouten JN, Wysolmerski JJ. Low estrogen and high parathyroid hormone-related peptide levels contribute to accelerated bone resorption and bone loss in lactating mice. Endocrinology 2003;144:5521-5529
72. VanHouten JN, Dann P, Stewart AF, Watson CJ, Pollak M, Karaplis AC, Wysolmerski JJ. Mammary-specific deletion of parathyroid hormone-related protein preserves bone mass during lactation. J Clin Invest 2003;112:1429-1436
73. Ardeshirpour L, Dann P, Pollak M, Wysolmerski J, VanHouten J. The calcium-sensing receptor regulates PTHrP production and calcium transport in the lactating mammary gland. Bone 2006;38:787-793
74. Grill V, Ho P, Body JJ, Johanson N, Lee SC, Kukreja SC, Moseley JM, Martin TJ. Parathyroid hormone-related protein: elevated levels in both humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy and hypercalcemia complicating metastatic breast cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991;73:1309-1315
75. Burtis WJ, Brady TG, Orloff JJ, Ersbak JB, Warrell RP Jr, Olson BR, Wu TL, Mitnick ME, Broadus AE, Stewart AF. Immunochemical characterization of circulating parathyroid hormone-related protein in patients with humoral hypercalcemia of cancer. N Engl J Med 1990;322:1106-1112
76. Pandian MR, Morgan CH, Carlton E, Segre GV. Modified immunoradiometric assay of parathyroid hormone-related protein: clinical application in the differential diagnosis of hypercalcemia. Clin Chem 1992;38:282-288
77. Ratcliffe WA, Norbury S, Stott RA, Heath DA, Ratcliffe JG. Immunoreactivity of plasma parathyrin-related peptide: three region-specific radioimmunoassays and a two-site immunoradiometric assay compared. Clin Chem 1991;37:1781-1787
78. Ratcliffe WA, Norbury S, Heath DA, Ratcliffe JG. Development and validation of an immunoradiometric assay of parathyrin-related protein in unextracted plasma. Clin Chem 1991;37:678-685
79. Chan MH, Wong K, Chan IH, Luo YF, Tarn S, Lam CW. Specific biochemical markers of bone metabolism and cytokine study confirm the diagnosis of malignant infantile osteopetrosis at birth using cord blood sample. Pathology 2005;37:51-55
80. Takacs I, Cooper H, Weaver DD, Econs MJ. Bone mineral density and laboratory evaluation of a type II autosomal dominant osteopetrosis carrier. Am J Med Genet 1999;85:9-12
81. Waguespack SG, Hui SL, White KE, Buckwalter KA, Econs MJ. Measurement of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase and the brain isoenzyme of creatine kinase accurately diagnoses type II autosomal dominant osteopetrosis but does not identify gene carriers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:2212-2217
82. Kaye AM, Kim TY, Kohen F, Somjen D. Anabolic effects of estrogen and parathyroid hormone on skeletal tissues: the use of creatine kinase B activity as a response marker. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1997;24:197-209
83. Bass S, Delmas PD, Pearce G, Hendrich E, Tabensky A, Seeman E. The differing tempo of growth in bone size, mass, and density in girls is region-specific. J Clin Invest 1999;104:795-804
84. Bradney M, Karlsson MK, Duan Y, Stuckey S, Bass S, Seeman E. Heterogeneity in the growth of the axial and appendicular skeleton in boys: implications for the pathogenesis of bone fragility in men. J Bone Miner Res 2000;15:1871-1878
85. Faulkner RA, Bailey DA, Drinkwater DT, McKay HA, Arnold C, Wilkinson AA. Bone densitometry in Canadian children 8-17 years of Age. Calcif Tissue Int 1996;59:344-351
86. Bailey DA, Faulkner RA, McKay HA. Growth, physical activity, and bone mineral acquisition. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1996;24:233-266
87. Bailey DA. The Saskatchewan Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study: bone mineral acquisition during the growing years. Int J Sports Med 1997;18(Suppl 3):S191-S194
88. Ward LM, Glorieux F. The Spectrum of Pediatric Osteoporosis. In: Glorieux F, Pettifor JM, Juppner H (eds) Pediatric Bone, 1st ed. Academic Press San Diego CA USA 2003;401-442
89. Bachrach LK, Hastie T, Wang MC, Narasimhan B, Marcus R. Bone mineral acquisition in healthy Asian, Hispanic, black, and Caucasian youth: a longitudinal study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:4702-4712
90. Gilsanz V, Skaggs DL, Kovanlikaya A, Sayre J, Loro ML, Kaufman F, Korenman SG. Differential effect of race on the axial and appendicular skeletons of children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1420-1427
91. Wang MC, Aguirre M, Bhudhikanok GS, Kendall CG, Kirsch S, Marcus R, Bachrach LK. Bone mass and hip axis length in healthy Asian, black, Hispanic, and white American youths. J Bone Miner Res 1997;12:1922-1935
92. Lu PW, Cowell CT, SA LL-J, Briody JN, Howman-Giles R. Volumetric bone mineral density in normal subjects, aged 5-27 years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1586-1590
93. Kroger H, Kotaniemi A, Vainio P, Alhava E. Bone densitometry of the spine and femur in children by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Bone Miner 1992;17:75-85
94. Carter DR, Bouxsein ML, Marcus R. New approaches for interpreting projected bone densitometry data. J Bone Miner Res 1992;7:137-145
95. Genant HK, Cooper C, Poor G, Reid I, Ehrlich G, Kanis J, Nordin BE, Barrett-Connor E, Black D, Bonjour JP, Dawson-Hughes B, Delmas PD, Dequeker J, Ragi Eis S, Gennari C, Johnell O, Johnston CC Jr, Lau EM, Liberman UA, Lindsay R, Martin TJ, Masri B, Mautalen CA, Meunier PJ, Khaltaev N. Interim report and recommendations of the World Health Organization Task-Force for Osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 1999;10:259-264