Ghrelin in Pregnancy and Lactation

Vitamins and Hormones

Volumn 77, Issue , 2007, Pages 259-284

  Fuglsang, Jens ^a  

^a AARHUS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GHRELIN;

ANIMAL; BLOOD; FEMALE; FETUS; GESTATIONAL AGE; HUMAN; LACTATION; METABOLISM; NEWBORN; PHYSIOLOGY; PREGNANCY; RAT; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ANIMALS, NEWBORN; FEMALE; FETUS; GESTATIONAL AGE; GHRELIN; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; LACTATION; PREGNANCY; RATS;

EID: 35748977606     PISSN: 00836729     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/S0083-6729(06)77011-X     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Arosio M., Ronchi C.L., Gebbia C., Pizzinelli S., Conte D., Cappiello V., Epaminonda P., Cesana B.M., Beck-Peccoz P., and Peracchi M. Ghrelin administration affects circulating pituitary and gastro-entero-pancreatic hormones in acromegaly. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 150 (2004) 27-32
2. Aydin S., Aydin S., Ozkan Y., and Kumru S. Ghrelin is present in human colostrum, transitional and mature milk. Peptides 27 (2006) 878-882
3. Baumann G., Davila N., Shaw M.A., Ray J., Liebhaber S.A., and Cooke N.E. Binding of human growth hormone (GH)-variant (placental GH) to GH-binding proteins in human plasma. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 73 (1991) 1175-1179
4. Bellone S., Rapa A., Vivenza D., Vercellotti A., Petri A., Radetti G., Bellone J., Broglio F., Ghigo E., and Bona G. Circulating ghrelin levels in the newborn are positively associated with gestational age. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 60 (2004) 613-617
5. Bellone S., Baldelli R., Radetti G., Rapa A., Vivenza D., Petri A., Savastio S., Zaffaroni M., Broglio F., Ghigo E., and Bona G. Ghrelin secretion in preterm neonates progressively increases and is refractory to the inhibitory effect of food intake. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91 (2006) 1929-1933
6. Bjorklund A.O., Adamson U.K., Carlstrom K.A., Hennen G., Igout A., Lins P.E., and Westgren L.M. Placental hormones during induced hypoglycaemia in pregnant women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Evidence of an active role for placenta in hormonal counter-regulation. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 105 (1998) 649-655
7. Bodart V., Febbraio M., Demers A., McNicoll N., Pohankova P., Perreault A., Sejlitz T., Escher E., Silverstein R.L., Lamontagne D., and Ong H. CD36 mediates the cardiovascular action of growth hormone-releasing peptides in the heart. Circ. Res. 90 (2002) 844-849
8. Bouros D., Tzouvelekis A., Anevlavis S., Doris M., Tryfon S., Froudarakis M., Zournatzi V., and Kukuvitis A. Smoking acutely increases plasma ghrelin concentrations. Clin. Chem. 52 (2006) 777-778
9. Bouhours-Nouet N., Boux D.C., Rouleau S., Douay O., Mathieu E., Bouderlique C., Gillard P., Limal J.M., Descamps P., and Coutant R. Maternal and cord blood ghrelin in the pregnancies of smoking mothers: Possible markers of nutrient availability for the fetus. Horm. Res. 66 (2006) 6-12
10. Broglio F., Benso A., Castiglioni C., Gottero C., Prodam F., Destefanis S., Gauna C., van der Lely A.J., Deghenghi R., Bo M., Arvat E., and Ghigo E. The endocrine response to ghrelin as a function of gender in humans in young and elderly subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 1537-1542
11. Broglio F., Gottero C., Benso A., Prodam F., Destefanis S., Gauna C., Maccario M., Deghenghi R., van der Lely A.J., and Ghigo E. Effects of ghrelin on the insulin and glycemic responses to glucose, arginine, or free fatty acids load in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 4268-4272
12. Broglio F., Gottero C., Prodam F., Gauna C., Muccioli G., Papotti M., Abribat T., van der Lely A.J., and Ghigo E. Non-acylated ghrelin counteracts the metabolic but not the neuroendocrine response to acylated ghrelin in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (2004) 3062-3065
13. Broglio F., Prodam F., Riganti F., Muccioli G., and Ghigo E. Ghrelin: From somatotrope secretion to new perspectives in the regulation of peripheral metabolic functions. Front Horm. Res. 35 (2006) 102-114
14. Caixas A., Bashore C., Nash W., Pi-Sunyer F., and Laferrere B. Insulin, unlike food intake, does not suppress ghrelin in human subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87 (2002) 1902
15. Cappiello V., Ronchi C., Morpurgo P.S., Epaminonda P., Arosio M., Beck-Peccoz P., and Spada A. Circulating ghrelin levels in basal conditions and during glucose tolerance test in acromegalic patients. Eur. J. Endocrinol 147 (2002) 189-194
16. Cassoni P., Papotti M., Ghe C., Catapano F., Sapino A., Graziani A., Deghenghi R., Reissmann T., Ghigo E., and Muccioli G. Identification, characterization, and biological activity of specific receptors for natural (ghrelin) and synthetic growth hormone secretagogues and analogs in human breast carcinomas and cell lines. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 86 (2001) 1738-1745
17. Caufriez A., Frankenne F., Hennen G., and Copinschi G. Regulation of maternal IGF-I by placental GH in normal and abnormal human pregnancies. Am. J. Physiol. 265 (1993) E572-E577
18. Chan J.L., Bullen J., Lee J.H., Yiannakouris N., and Mantzoros C.S. Ghrelin levels are not regulated by recombinant leptin administration and/or three days of fasting in healthy subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (2004) 335-343
19. Chanoine J.P., and Wong A.C. Ghrelin gene expression is markedly higher in fetal pancreas compared with fetal stomach: Effect of maternal fasting. Endocrinology 145 (2004) 3813-3820
20. Chellakooty M., Skibsted L., Skouby S.O., Andersson A.M., Petersen J.H., Main K.M., Skakkebaek N.E., and Juul A. Longitudinal study of serum placental GH in 455 normal pregnancies: Correlation to gestational age, fetal gender, and weight. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87 (2002) 2734-2739
21. Chellakooty M., Vangsgaard K., Larsen T., Scheike T., Falck-Larsen J., Legarth J., Andersson A.M., Main K.M., Skakkebaek N.E., and Juul A. A longitudinal study of intrauterine growth and the placental growth hormone (GH)-insulin-like growth factor I axis in maternal circulation: Association between placental GH and fetal growth. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (2004) 384-391
22. Chen E.Y., Liao Y.C., Smith D.H., Barrera-Saldana H.A., Gelinas R.E., and Seeburg P.H. The human growth hormone locus: Nucleotide sequence, biology, and evolution. Genomics 4 (1989) 479-497
23. Cortelazzi D., Cappiello V., Morpurgo P.S., Ronzoni S., Nobile De Santis M.S., Cetin I., Beck-Peccoz P., and Spada A. Circulating levels of ghrelin in human fetuses. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 149 (2003) 111-116
24. Coutant R., Boux D.C., Douay O., Mathieu E., Rouleau S., Beringue F., Gillard P., Limal J.M., and Descamps P. Relationships between placental GH concentration and maternal smoking, newborn gender, and maternal leptin: Possible implications for birth weight. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 86 (2001) 4854-4859
25. Cripps R.L., Martin-Gronert M.S., and Ozanne S.E. Fetal and perinatal programming of appetite. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 109 (2005) 1-11
26. Cummings D.E., Purnell J.Q., Frayo R.S., Schmidova K., Wisse B.E., and Weigle D.S. A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes 50 (2001) 1714-1719
27. Date Y., Nakazato M., Murakami N., Kojima M., Kangawa K., and Matsukura S. Ghrelin acts in the central nervous system to stimulate gastric acid secretion. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 280 (2001) 904-907
28. de Zegher F., Vanderschueren-Lodeweyckx M., Spitz B., Faijerson Y., Blomberg F., Beckers A., Hennen G., and Frankenne F. Perinatal growth hormone (GH) physiology: Effect of GH-releasing factor on maternal and fetal secretion of pituitary and placental GH. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 71 (1990) 520-522
29. Desai M., Gayle D., Babu J., and Ross M.G. Programmed obesity in intrauterine growth-restricted newborns: Modulation by newborn nutrition. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 288 (2005) R91-R96
30. Dewey K.G., Heinig M.J., and Nommsen L.A. Maternal weight-loss patterns during prolonged lactation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 58 (1993) 162-166
31. Dimaraki E.V., Jaffe C.A., Bowers C.Y., Marbach P., and Barkan A.L. Pulsatile and nocturnal growth hormone secretions in men do not require periodic declines of somatostatin. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 285 (2003) E163-E170
32. Dye J.F., Jablenska R., Donnelly J.L., Lawrence L., Leach L., Clark P., and Firth J.A. Phenotype of the endothelium in the human term placenta. Placenta 22 (2001) 32-43
33. Eden E.B., Burman P., Holdstock C., and Karlsson F.A. Effects of growth hormone (GH) on ghrelin, leptin, and adiponectin in GH-deficient patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 5193-5198
34. Eriksson L., Eden S., Frohlander N., Bengtsson B.A., and Von Schoultz B. Continuous 24-hour secretion of growth hormone during late pregnancy. A regulator of maternal metabolic adjustment?. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 67 (1988) 543-547
35. Eriksson L., Frankenne F., Eden S., Hennen G., and Von Schoultz B. Growth hormone 24-h serum profiles during pregnancy-lack of pulsatility for the secretion of the placental variant. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol 96 (1989) 949-953
36. Evain-Brion D., Alsat E., Mirlesse V., Dodeur M., Scippo M.L., Hennen G., and Frankenne F. Regulation of growth hormone secretion in human trophoblastic cells in culture. Horm. Res. 33 (1990) 256-259
37. Fagerberg B., Hulten L.M., and Hulthe J. Plasma ghrelin, body fat, insulin resistance, and smoking in clinically healthy men: The atherosclerosis and insulin resistance study. Metabolism 52 (2003) 1460-1463
38. Farquhar J., Heiman M., Wong A.C., Wach R., Chessex P., and Chanoine J.P. Elevated umbilical cord ghrelin concentrations in small for gestational age neonates. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 4324-4327
39. Fernandez-Fernandez R., Navarro V.M., Barreiro M.L., Vigo E.M., Tovar S., Sirotkin A.V., Casanueva F.F., Aguilar E., Dieguez C., Pinilla L., and Tena-Sempere M. Effects of chronic hyperghrelinemia on puberty onset and pregnancy outcome in the rat. Endocrinology 146 (2005) 3018-3025
40. Flanagan D.E., Evans M.L., Monsod T.P., Rife F., Heptulla R.A., Tamborlane W.V., and Sherwin R.S. The influence of insulin on circulating ghrelin. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 284 (2003) E313-E316
41. Fuglsang J., Lauszus F., Flyvbjerg A., and Ovesen P. Human placental growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor I and -II, and insulin requirements during pregnancy in type 1 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 88 (2003) 4355-4361
42. Fuglsang J., Skjaerbaek C., Espelund U., Frystyk J., Fisker S., Flyvbjerg A., and Ovesen P. Ghrelin and its relationship to growth hormones during normal pregnancy. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 62 (2005) 554-559
43. Fuglsang J., Sandager P., Moller N., Fisker S., Frystyk J., and Ovesen P. Peripartum maternal and fetal ghrelin, growth hormones, IGFs and insulin interrelations. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 64 (2006) 502-509
44. Fuglsang J., Sandager P., Moller N., Fisker S., Orskov H., and Ovesen P. Kinetics and secretion of placental growth hormone around parturition. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 154 (2006) 449-457
45. Gaytan F., Morales C., Barreiro M.L., Jeffery P., Chopin L.K., Herington A.C., Casanueva F.F., Aguilar E., Dieguez C., and Tena-Sempere M. Expression of growth hormone secretagogue receptor type 1a, the functional ghrelin receptor, in human ovarian surface epithelium, mullerian duct derivatives, and ovarian tumors. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90 (2005) 1798-1804
46. Ghigo E., Broglio F., Arvat E., Maccario M., Papotti M., and Muccioli G. Ghrelin: More than a natural GH secretagogue and/or an orexigenic factor. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 62 (2005) 1-17
47. Gnanapavan S., Kola B., Bustin S.A., Morris D.G., McGee P., Fairclough P., Bhattacharya S., Carpenter R., Grossman A.B., and Korbonits M. The tissue distribution of the mRNA of ghrelin and subtypes of its receptor, GHS-R, in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87 (2002) 2988
48. Gohlke B.C., Huber A., Hecher K., Fimmers R., Bartmann P., and Roth C.L. Fetal insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II, and ghrelin in association with birth weight and postnatal growth in monozygotic twins with discordant growth. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90 (2005) 2270-2274
49. Goodman H.M., Tai L.R., Ray J., Cooke N.E., and Liebhaber S.A. Human growth hormone variant produces insulin-like and lipolytic responses in rat adipose tissue. Endocrinology 129 (1991) 1779-1783
50. Gualillo O., Caminos J., Blanco M., Garcia-Caballero T., Kojima M., Kangawa K., Dieguez C., and Casanueva F. Ghrelin, a novel placental-derived hormone. Endocrinology 142 (2001) 788-794
51. Gualillo O., Caminos J.E., Nogueiras R., Seoane L.M., Arvat E., Ghigo E., Casanueva F.F., and Dieguez C. Effect of food restriction on ghrelin in normal-cycling female rats and in pregnancy. Obes. Res. 10 (2002) 682-687
52. Hales C.N., and Barker D.J. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Br. Med. Bull. 60 (2001) 5-20
53. Hattori N., Saito T., Yagyu T., Jiang B.H., Kitagawa K., and Inagaki C. GH, GH receptor, GH secretagogue receptor, and ghrelin expression in human T cells, B cells, and neutrophils. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86 (2001) 4284-4291
54. Hayashida T., Nakahara K., Mondal M.S., Date Y., Nakazato M., Kojima M., Kangawa K., and Murakami N. Ghrelin in neonatal rats: Distribution in stomach and its possible role. J. Endocrinol. 173 (2002) 239-245
55. Heinig M.J., Nommsen L.A., Peerson J.M., Lonnerdal B., and Dewey K.G. Energy and protein intakes of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during the first year of life and their association with growth velocity: The DARLING Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 58 (1993) 152-161
56. Henson M.C., and Castracane V.D. Leptin in pregnancy. Biol. Reprod. 63 (2000) 1219-1228
57. Herrera E. Lipid metabolism in pregnancy and its consequences in the fetus and newborn. Endocrine 19 (2002) 43-55
58. Highman T.J., Friedman J.E., Huston L.P., Wong W.W., and Catalano P.M. Longitudinal changes in maternal serum leptin concentrations, body composition, and resting metabolic rate in pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 178 (1998) 1010-1015
59. Ho K.Y., Veldhuis J.D., Johnson M.L., Furlanetto R., Evans W.S., Alberti K.G., and Thorner M.O. Fasting enhances growth hormone secretion and amplifies the complex rhythms of growth hormone secretion in man. J. Clin. Invest. 81 (1988) 968-975
60. Jansson T., and Powell T.L. IFPA 2005 Award in Placentology Lecture. Human placental transport in altered fetal growth: Does the placenta function as a nutrient sensor?-a review. Placenta 27 Suppl. A (2006) S91-S97
61. Johnstone L.E., and Higuchi T. Food intake and leptin during pregnancy and lactation. Prog. Brain Res. 133 (2001) 215-227
62. Kawamura K., Sato N., Fukuda J., Kodama H., Kumagai J., Tanikawa H., Nakamura A., Honda Y., Sato T., and Tanaka T. Ghrelin inhibits the development of mouse preimplantation embryos in vitro. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 2623-2633
63. Kellokoski E., Poykko S.M., Karjalainen A.H., Ukkola O., Heikkinen J., Kesaniemi Y.A., and Horkko S. Estrogen replacement therapy increases plasma ghrelin levels. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90 (2005) 2954-2963
64. Kierson J.A., Dimatteo D.M., Locke R.G., Mackley A.B., and Spear M.L. Ghrelin and cholecystokinin in term and preterm human breast milk. Acta Paediatr. 95 (2006) 991-995
65. Kitamura S., Yokota I., Hosoda H., Kotani Y., Matsuda J., Naito E., Ito M., Kangawa K., and Kuroda Y. Ghrelin concentration in cord and neonatal blood: Relation to fetal growth and energy balance. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 5473-5477
66. Kojima M., Hosoda H., Date Y., Nakazato M., Matsuo H., and Kangawa K. Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402 (1999) 656-660
67. Lawrence C.B., Snape A.C., Baudoin F.M., and Luckman S.M. Acute central ghrelin and GH secretagogues induce feeding and activate brain appetite centers. Endocrinology 143 (2002) 155-162
68. Lewandowski K., Horn R., O'Callaghan C.J., Dunlop D., Medley G.F., O'Hare P., and Brabant G. Free leptin, bound leptin, and soluble leptin receptor in normal and diabetic pregnancies. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 84 (1999) 300-306
69. Liebhaber S.A., Urbanek M., Ray J., Tuan R.S., and Cooke N.E. Characterization and histologic localization of human growth hormone-variant gene expression in the placenta. J. Clin. Invest. 83 (1989) 1985-1991
70. Linnemann K., Malek A., Sager R., Blum W.F., Schneider H., and Fusch C. Leptin production and release in the dually in vitro perfused human placenta. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85 (2000) 4298-4301
71. Makino Y., Hosoda H., Shibata K., Makino I., Kojima M., Kangawa K., and Kawarabayashi T. Alteration of plasma ghrelin levels associated with the blood pressure in pregnancy. Hypertension 39 (2002) 781-784
72. Masuda Y., Tanaka T., Inomata N., Ohnuma N., Tanaka S., Itoh Z., Hosoda H., Kojima M., and Kangawa K. Ghrelin stimulates gastric acid secretion and motility in rats. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 276 (2000) 905-908
73. Mazlan M., Spence-Jones C., Chard T., Landon J., and McLean C. Circulating levels of GH-releasing hormone and GH during human pregnancy. J. Endocrinol. 125 (1990) 161-167
74. McIntyre H.D., Serek R., Crane D.I., Veveris-Lowe T., Parry A., Johnson S., Leung K.C., Ho K.K., Bougoussa M., Hennen G., Igout A., Chan F.Y., et al. Placental growth hormone (GH), GH-binding protein, and insulin-like growth factor axis in normal, growth-retarded, and diabetic pregnancies: Correlations with fetal growth. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85 (2000) 1143-1150
75. Mirlesse V., Frankenne F., Alsat E., Poncelet M., Hennen G., and Evain-Brion D. Placental growth hormone levels in normal pregnancy and in pregnancies with intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr. Res. 34 (1993) 439-442
76. Moller N., Nygren J., Hansen T.K., Orskov H., Frystyk J., and Nair K.S. Splanchnic release of ghrelin in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 850-852
77. Monti V., Carlson J.J., Hunt S.C., and Adams T.D. Relationship of ghrelin and leptin hormones with body mass index and waist circumference in a random sample of adults. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 106 (2006) 822-828
78. Nagaya N., Kojima M., Uematsu M., Yamagishi M., Hosoda H., Oya H., Hayashi Y., and Kangawa K. Hemodynamic and hormonal effects of human ghrelin in healthy volunteers. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 280 (2001) R1483-R1487
79. Nakahara K., Hayashida T., Nakazato M., Kojima M., Hosoda H., Kangawa K., and Murakami N. Effect of chronic treatments with ghrelin on milk secretion in lactating rats. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 303 (2003) 751-755
80. Nakahara K., Nakagawa M., Baba Y., Sato M., Toshinai K., Date Y., Nakazato M., Kojima M., Miyazato M., Kaiya H., Hosoda H., Kangawa K., et al. Maternal ghrelin plays an important role in rat fetal development during pregnancy. Endocrinology 147 (2006) 1333-1342
81. Nakazato M., Murakami N., Date Y., Kojima M., Matsuo H., Kangawa K., and Matsukura S. A role for ghrelin in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 409 (2001) 194-198
82. Ng P.C., Lee C.H., Lam C.W., Wong E., Chan I.H., and Fok T.F. Plasma ghrelin and resistin concentrations are suppressed in infants of insulin-dependent diabetic mothers. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (2004) 5563-5568
83. Ng P.C., Lee C.H., Lam C.W., Chan I.H., Wong E., and Fok T.F. Ghrelin in preterm and term newborns: Relation to anthropometry, leptin and insulin. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 63 (2005) 217-222
84. Onal E.E., Cinaz P., Atalay Y., Turkyilmaz C., Bideci A., Akturk A., Okumus N., Unal S., Koc E., and Ergenekon E. Umbilical cord ghrelin concentrations in small- and appropriate-for-gestational age newborn infants: Relationship to anthropometric markers. J. Endocrinol. 180 (2004) 267-271
85. Ozanne S.E., and Hales C.N. Lifespan: Catch-up growth and obesity in male mice. Nature 427 (2004) 411-412
86. Palik E., Baranyi E., Melczer Z., Audikovszky M., Szocs A., Winkler G., and Cseh K. Elevated serum acylated (biologically active) ghrelin and resistin levels associate with pregnancy-induced weight gain and insulin resistance. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 76 (2007) 351-357
87. Papotti M., Ghe C., Cassoni P., Catapano F., Deghenghi R., Ghigo E., and Muccioli G. Growth hormone secretagogue binding sites in peripheral human tissues. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85 (2000) 3803-3807
88. Parretti E., Mecacci F., Papini M., Cioni R., Carignani L., Mignosa M., La Torre P., and Mello G. Third-trimester maternal glucose levels from diurnal profiles in nondiabetic pregnancies: Correlation with sonographic parameters of fetal growth. Diabetes Care 24 (2001) 1319-1323
89. Phelps R.L., Metzger B.E., and Freinkel N. Carbohydrate metabolism in pregnancy. XVII. Diurnal profiles of plasma glucose, insulin, free fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, and individual amino acids in late normal pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 140 (1981) 730-736
90. Poykko S.M., Kellokoski E., Horkko S., Kauma H., Kesaniemi Y.A., and Ukkola O. Low plasma ghrelin is associated with insulin resistance, hypertension, and the prevalence of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 52 (2003) 2546-2553
91. Saad M.F., Bernaba B., Hwu C.M., Jinagouda S., Fahmi S., Kogosov E., and Boyadjian R. Insulin regulates plasma ghrelin concentration. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 87 (2002) 3997-4000
92. Savino F., Liguori S.A., Fissore M.F., Oggero R., Silvestro L., and Miniero R. Serum ghrelin concentration and weight gain in healthy term infants in the first year of life. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 41 (2005) 653-659
93. Savino F., Grassino E.C., Fissore M.F., Guidi C., Liguori S.A., Silvestro L., Oggero R., and Miniero R. Ghrelin, motilin, insulin concentration in healthy infants in the first months of life: Relation to fasting time and anthropometry. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 65 (2006) 158-162
94. Scippo M.L., Frankenne F., Hooghe-Peters E.L., Igout A., Velkeniers B., and Hennen G. Syncytiotrophoblastic localization of the human growth hormone variant mRNA in the placenta. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 92 (1993) R7-R13
95. Sebire N.J., Jolly M., Harris J.P., Wadsworth J., Joffe M., Beard R.W., Regan L., and Robinson S. Maternal obesity and pregnancy outcome: A study of 287,213 pregnancies in London. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 25 (2001) 1175-1182
96. Shibata K., Hosoda H., Kojima M., Kangawa K., Makino Y., Makino I., Kawarabayashi T., Futagami K., and Gomita Y. Regulation of ghrelin secretion during pregnancy and lactation in the rat: Possible involvement of hypothalamus. Peptides 25 (2004) 279-287
97. Sivan E., Homko C.J., Chen X., Reece E.A., and Boden G. Effect of insulin on fat metabolism during and after normal pregnancy. Diabetes 48 (1999) 834-838
98. Spellacy W.N., Buhi W.C., and Birk S.A. Human placental lactogen levels in multiple pregnancies. Obstet. Gynecol. 52 (1978) 210-212
99. Sun Y., Ahmed S., and Smith R.G. Deletion of ghrelin impairs neither growth nor appetite. Mol. Cell. Biol. 23 (2003) 7973-7981
100. Takaya K., Ariyasu H., Kanamoto N., Iwakura H., Yoshimoto A., Harada M., Mori K., Komatsu Y., Usui T., Shimatsu A., Ogawa Y., Hosoda K., et al. Ghrelin strongly stimulates growth hormone release in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85 (2000) 4908-4911
101. Tanaka K., Minoura H., Isobe T., Yonaha H., Kawato H., Wang D.F., Yoshida T., Kojima M., Kangawa K., and Toyoda N. Ghrelin is involved in the decidualization of human endometrial stromal cells. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (2003) 2335-2340
102. Tannenbaum G.S., Epelbaum J., and Bowers C.Y. Interrelationship between the novel peptide ghrelin and somatostatin/growth hormone-releasing hormone in regulation of pulsatile growth hormone secretion. Endocrinology 144 (2003) 967-974
103. Thompson N.M., Gill D.A., Davies R., Loveridge N., Houston P.A., Robinson I.C., and Wells T. Ghrelin and des-octanoyl ghrelin promote adipogenesis directly in vivo by a mechanism independent of the type 1a growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Endocrinology 145 (2004) 234-242
104. Tschop M., Smiley D.L., and Heiman M.L. Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature 407 (2000) 908-913
105. Veldhuis J.D., Iranmanesh A., Ho K.K., Waters M.J., Johnson M.L., and Lizarralde G. Dual defects in pulsatile growth hormone secretion and clearance subserve the hyposomatotropism of obesity in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 72 (1991) 51-59
106. Villar J., Cogswell M., Kestler E., Castillo P., Menendez R., and Repke J.T. Effect of fat and fat-free mass deposition during pregnancy on birth weight. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 167 (1992) 1344-1352
107. Volante M., Allia E., Gugliotta P., Funaro A., Broglio F., Deghenghi R., Muccioli G., Ghigo E., and Papotti M. Expression of ghrelin and of the GH secretagogue receptor by pancreatic islet cells and related endocrine tumors. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab 87 (2002) 1300-1308
108. Wierup N., and Sundler F. Circulating levels of ghrelin in human fetuses. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 150 (2004) 405
109. Wren A.M., Seal L.J., Cohen M.A., Brynes A.E., Frost G.S., Murphy K.G., Dhillo W.S., Ghatei M.A., and Bloom S.R. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86 (2001) 5992
110. Yildiz B.O., Suchard M.A., Wong M.L., McCann S.M., and Licinio J. Alterations in the dynamics of circulating ghrelin, adiponectin, and leptin in human obesity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101 (2004) 10434-10439
111. Yogev Y., Ben Haroush A., Chen R., Rosenn B., Hod M., and Langer O. Diurnal glycemic profile in obese and normal weight nondiabetic pregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 191 (2004) 949-953
112. Yokota I., Kitamura S., Hosoda H., Kotani Y., and Kangawa K. Concentration of the n-octanoylated active form of ghrelin in fetal and neonatal circulation. Endocr. J. 52 (2005) 271-276
113. Zhang J.V., Ren P.G., Avsian-Kretchmer O., Luo C.W., Rauch R., Klein C., and Hsueh A.J. Obestatin, a peptide encoded by the ghrelin gene, opposes ghrelin's effects on food intake. Science 310 (2005) 996-999