A review of epidemiology of paediatric elbow injuries in sports

Sports Medicine

Volumn 37, Issue 8, 2007, Pages 717-735

  Magra, Merzesh ^a   Caine, Dennis ^b   Maffulli, Nicola ^a  

^a KEELE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

Children; Elbow injuries; Sports injuries

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ARM INJURY; CHILD; CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDER; ELBOW; HUMAN; INJURY; REVIEW; SPORT INJURY;

ADOLESCENT; ARM INJURIES; ATHLETIC INJURIES; CHILD; CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDERS; ELBOW; ELBOW JOINT; HUMANS;

EID: 35748957824     PISSN: 01121642     EISSN: 11792035     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200737080-00005     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Conn JM, Annest JL, Gilchrist J. Sports and recreation-related injury episodes in the US population, 1997-1999. Inj Prev 2003; 9: 117-23
2. Rowley S. The effect of intensive training on young athletes. London: Sports Council, 1989: 6-7
3. Maffulli N. Children in sport: questions and controversies. In: Maffulli N, editor. Colour atlas and text of sports medicine in childhood and adolescence. London: Mosby-Wolfe, 1995: 7-14
4. Knight S, Veron DD, Fines RJ, et al. Pre-hospital emergency care for children at school and non school locations. Pediatrics 1999; 103: e81
5. Lenaway DD, Ambler AG, Beaudoin DE. The epidemiology of school related injuries: new perspectives. Am J Prev Med 1992; 8: 193-8
6. Simon TD, Bublitz MS, Manbidge SJ. External causes of pediatric injury-related emergency department visits in the United States. Acad Emerg Med 2004; 11: 1042-8
7. Burt CW, Overpeck MD. Emergency visits for sports-related injuries. Ann Emerg Med 2001; 37: 301-8
8. Whiteside JA, Andrews JR. Common elbow problems in the recreational athlete. J Musculoskel Med 1989; 6: 17-34
9. DaSilva MF, Williams JS, Fadale PD, et al. Pediatric throwing injuries about the elbow. Am J Orthop 1998; 27: 90-6
10. Kandemir U, Fu FH, McMohan PJ. Elbow injuries. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2002; 14: 160-7
11. Benjamin HJ, Briner WW Jr. Little league elbow. Clin J Sport Med 2005; 15: 37-40
12. Chen FS, Diaz VA, Loebenberg M, et al. Shoulder and elbow injuries in the skeletally immature athlete. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2005; 13: 172-85
13. Morrey BF, An KN. Functional anatomy of the ligaments of the elbow. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1985; 201: 84-90
14. Callaway GH, Field LD, Deng XH, et al. Biomechanical evaluation of the medial collateral ligament of the elbow. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1997; 79: 1223-31
15. Hotchkiss RN. Common disorders of the elbow in athletes and musicians. Hand Clin 1990; 6: 507-15
16. Regan WD, Korinek SL, Morrey BF, et al. Biomechanical study of ligaments around the elbow joint. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1991; 271: 170-9
17. Amadio PC. Epidemiology of hand and wrist injuries in sports. Hand Clin 1990; 6: 379-81
18. Hang DW, Chao CM, Hang YS. A clinical and roentgenographic study of little league elbow. Am J Sports Med 2004; 32: 79-84
19. Lyman S, Fleisig GS, Andrews JR, et al. Effect of pitch type, pitch count, and pitching mechanics on risk of elbow and shoulder pain in youth baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med 2002; 30: 463-8
20. Lyman S, Fleisig GS, Waterbor JW, et al. Longitudinal study of elbow and shoulder pain in youth baseball pitchers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1803-10
21. Ochi T, Shimaoka Y, Nakagawa S. Enactment of a provision for restricting pitching in national high school championship games. Clin Sports Med 1994; 11: 851-3
22. Grana WA, Rashkin A. Pitchers elbow in adolescence. Am J Sports Med 1980; 8: 333-6
23. Hang YS, Lippert FG III, Spolek GA, et al. Biomechanical study of the pitching elbow. Int Orthop 1979; 3: 217-23
24. Albright JA, Jokl P, Shaw R, et al. Clinical study of baseball pitchers: correlation of injury to the throwing arm and method of delivery. Am J Sports Med 1978; 6: 15-21
25. Gugenheim JJ, Stanley RF, Wood GW, et al. Little League survey: the Houston study. Am J Sports Med 1976; 4: 189-200
26. Larson RL, Singer KM, Bergstrom R, et al. Little League survey: the Eugene study. Am J Sports Med 1976; 4: 201-9
27. Torg JS, Pollack H, Sweterlitsch P. The effect of competitive pitching on the shoulders and elbows of preadolescent baseball players. Pediatrics 1972; 49: 267-72
28. Adams JE. Injury to the throwing arm: a study of traumatic changes in the elbow joints of boy baseball players. Calif Med 1965; 102: 127-32
29. Klingele KE, Kocher MS. Little league elbow: valgus overload injury in the paediatric athlete. Sports Med 2002; 32: 1005-15
30. Stuart MJ, Morrey MA, Smith AM, et al. Injuries in youth football: a prospective observational cohort analysis among players aged 9 to 13 years. Mayo Clin Proc 2002; 77: 317-22
31. DeLee JC, Farney WC. Incidence of injury in Texas high school football. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 575-80
32. Goldberg B, Rosenthal PP, Nicholas JA. Injuries in youth football. Phys Sportsmed 1984; 12: 122-30
33. Culpepper MI, Niemann KMW. A comparison of game and practice injuries in high school football. Phys Sportsmed 1983; 11: 117-22
34. Olson OC. Spokane study. High school football injuries. Phys Sportsmed 1979; 7: 75-82
35. Moretz A III, Rashkin A, Grana WA. Oklahoma high school football injury study: a preliminary report. J Okla State Med Assoc 1978; 71: 85-8
36. Roser LA, Clawson DK. Football injuries in the very young athlete. Clin Orthop 1970; 69: 219-23
37. Durie RM, Munroe AD. A prospective survey of injuries in a New Zealand schoolboy rugby population. NZ J Sports Med 2000; 30: 84-90
38. Caine D, Knutzen K, Howe W, et al. A three-year epidemiological study of injuries affecting young female gymnasts. Phys Therap Sport 2003; 4: 10-23
39. Dixon M, Fricker P. Injuries to elite gymnasts over 10 yr. Med Sci Sports Excer 1993; 25: 1322-9
40. Homer S, Mackintosh S. Injuries in young female elite gymnasts. Physiotherapy 1992; 78: 804-8
41. Linder KJ, Caine D. Injury patterns of female competitive club gymnasts. Can J Sport Sci 1990; 15: 254-61
42. Caine D, Cochrane B, Caine C, et al. An epidemiological investigation of injuries affecting young competitive female gymnasts. Am J Sports Med 1989; 17: 811-20
43. Weiker GG. Injuries in club gymnastics. Phys Sportsmed 1985; 13: 63-6
44. Steele VA, White JA. Injury amongst female gymnasts. Proceedings of the Society of Sports Sciences, Sport and Science conference. Liverpool: School of Physical Education and Recreation, 1983
45. Caine D, Nassar L. Gymnastics injuries. In: Caine DJ, Maffulli N, editors. Epidemiology of pediatric sports injuries: individual sports. Basel: Karger, 2005; 48: 18-58
46. Schieber RA, Branche-Dorsey CM. In-line skating injuries. Epidemiology and recommendations for prevention. Sports Med 1995; 19: 427-32
47. Schieber RA, Branche-Dorsey CM, Ryan GW, et al. Risk factors for injuries from in-line skating and the effectiveness of safety gear. New Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1630-5
48. Kvidera DJ, Frankel VH. Trauma on eight wheels: a study of roller skating injuries in Seattle. Am J Sports Med 1983; 11: 38-41
49. Machold W, Kwasny O, Gabler P, et al. Risk of injury through snowboarding. J Trauma 2000; 48: 1109-14
50. Drkulec JA, Letts M. Snowboarding injuries in children. Can J Surg 2001; 44: 435-9
51. Molinari M, Bertoldi L, Zucco P. Epidemiological aspects of skiing injuries in children under 15: a four year review. J Sports Traumatol Rel Res 1994; 16: 39-47
52. Hagel BE, Meeuwisse WH, Mohtadi NGH, et al. Skiing and snowboarding injuries in children and adolescents of Southern Alberta. Clin J Sport Med 1999; 9: 9-17
53. Park RD, Castaldi CR. Injuries in junior ice hockey. Phys Sportsmed 1980; 8: 81-90
54. Brust JD, Leonard BJ, Pheley A, et al. Children's ice hockey injuries. Am J Dis Child 1992; 146: 741-7
55. Stuart MJ, Smith A. Injuries in junior A ice hockey: a three year prospective study. Am J Sports Med 1995; 23: 458-61
56. Pinto M, Kuhn JE, Greenfield MLVH, et al. Prospective analysis of ice hockey injuries at the junior A level over the course of one season. Clin J Sport Med 1999; 9: 70-4
57. Estwanik JJ III, Bergfeld JA, Collins HR, et al. Injuries in interscholastic wrestling. Phys Sportsmed 1980; 8: 111-21
58. Pasque CB, Hewett TE. A prospective study of high school wrestling injuries. Am J Sports Med 2000; 28: 509-15
59. Lorish TR, Rizzo TD, Ilstrup DM, et al. Injuries in adolescent and preadolescent boys at two large wrestling tournaments. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 199-202
60. Hutchinson MR, Laprade RF, Burnett QM II, et al. Injury surveillance at the USTA boys' tennis championships: a 6-yr study. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995; 27: 826-30
61. Hutchinson MR, Ireland ML. Overuse and throwing injuries in the skeletally immature athlete. Instr Course Lect 2003; 52: 25-36
62. Safran MR, Hutchinson MR, Moss R, et al. A comparison of injuries in elite boys and girls tennis players. Transactions of the 9th annual meeting of the Society of Tennis Medicine and Science; 1999 Mar 13-14; Indian Wells (CA)
63. Kocher MS, Waters PM, Micheli LJ. Upper extremity injuries in the paediatric athlete. Sports Med 2000; 30: 117-35
64. Ireland ML, Hutchinson MR. Upper extremity injuries in young athletes. Clin Sports Med 1995; 14: 533-69
65. Kelly AM, Pappas AM. Shoulder and elbow injuries and painful syndromes. Adolesc Med 1998; 9: 569-87
66. Hale CJ. Protective equipment for baseball. Phys Sportsmed 1979; 7: 58-63
67. Andrews JR, Fleisig GS. Preventing throwing injuries. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1998; 27: 187-8
68. Yen KL, Metzl JD. Sports-specific concerns in the young athlete: baseball. Pediatr Emerg Care 2000; 16: 215-20
69. Bylak J, Hutchinson MR. Common sports injuries in young tennis players. Sports Med 1998; 26: 119-32
70. Tan V, Seldes RM, Daluiski A. In-line skating injuries. Sports Med 2001; 31: 691-9
71. Fleisig GS, Barrentine SW, Escamilla RF, et al. Biomechanics of overhand throwing with implications for injuries. Sports Med 1996; 21: 421-37
72. Fleisig GS, Barrentine SW, Zheng N, et al. Kinematic and kinetic comparison of baseball pitching among various levels of development. J Biomech 1999; 32: 1371-5
73. Sabick MB, Torry MR, Lawton RL, et al. Valgus torque in youth baseball pitchers: a biomechanical study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 2004; 13: 349-55
74. Brogden BS, Crow MD. Little Leaguer's elbow. Am J Roentgenol 1960; 83: 671-5
75. Slocum DB. Classification of elbow injuries from baseball pitching. Tex Med 1968; 64: 48-53
76. Gerbino PG. Elbow disorders in throwing athletes. Orthop Clin N Am 2003; 34: 417-26
77. Priest JD, Weise DJ. Elbow injury in women's gymnastics. Am J Sports Med 1981; 9: 288-95
78. Bojanic I, Ivkovic A, Boric I. Arthroscopy and microfracture technique in the treatment of osteochondritis dissecans of the humeral capitellum: report of three adolescent gymnasts. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2006; 14: 491-6
79. Singer KM, Roy SP. Osteochondrosis of the humeral capitellum. Am J Sports Med 1984; 12: 351-60
80. Aronen JG. Problems of the upper extremity in gymnastics. Clin Sports Med 1985; 4: 61-71
81. Maffulli N, Chan D, Aldridge MJ. Overuse injuries of the olecranon in young gymnasts. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1992; 74: 305-8
82. Schwarzman PS. Roller skating injuries. Ann Emerg Med 1980; 9: 193-5
83. Ogawa K, Ui M. Fracture-separation of the medial humeral epicondyle caused by arm wrestling. J Trauma Inj Infect Crit Care 1996; 41: 494-7
84. Garrick JG, Requa RK. The epidemiology of women's gymnastic injuries. Presented at the meeting of the American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine; 1978 Feb 10-11; Dallas (TX)
85. Pettrone FA, Ricciardelli E. Gymnastic injuries: the Virginia experience 1982-83. Am J Sports Med 1987; 15: 59-62
86. Garrick JG, Requa RK. Epidemiology of women's gymnastic injuries. Am J Sports Med 1980; 8: 261-4
87. Sands WA, Shultz BB, Newman AP. Women's gymnastics injuries: a 5-year study. Am J Sports Med 1993; 21: 271-6
88. Sherker S, Cassell E. Personal protective equipment use by in-line skaters in Victoria. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2001; 25: 179-84
89. Gill TJ IV, Micheli LJ. The immature athlete: common injuries and overuse syndromes of the elbow and wrist. Clin Sports Med 1996; 15: 401-23
90. Micheli LJ. Overuse injuries in children's sports: the growth factor. Orthop Clin North Am 1983; 14: 337-60
91. Congeni J. Treating and preventing little league elbow. Phys Sportsmed 1994; 22: 54-64
92. Lord J, Winell JJ. Overuse injuries in pediatric athletes. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004; 16: 47-50
93. Hughes PE, Paletta GA. Little leaguer's elbow, medial epicondyle injury, and osteochondritis dissecans. Sports Med Arthroscopy Rev 2003; 11: 30-9
94. Maffulli N, Bruns W. Injuries in young athletes. Eur J Pediatr 2000; 159: 59-63
95. Gregg JR, Torg E. Upper extremity injuries in adolescent tennis players. Clin Sports Med 1988; 7: 371-85
96. Jackson DW, Silvino N, Reiman P. Osteochondritis in the female gymnast's elbow. Arthroscopy 1989; 5: 129-36
97. Brown R, Blazina ME, Kerlan RK, et al. Osteochondritis of the capitellum. J Sports Med 1974; 2: 27-46
98. Tullos HS, King JW. Throwing mechanisms in sports. Orthop Clin North Am 1973; 4: 709-20
99. Krijnen MR, Lim L, Willems WJ. Arthroscopic treatment of osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum: report of 5 female athletes. Arthroscopy 2003; 19: 210-4
100. Landin LA. Epidemiology of children's fractures. J Pediatr Orthop B 1997; 6: 79-83
101. Houshian S, Mehdi B, Larsen MS. The epidemiology of elbow fractures in children: analysis of 355 fractures, with special reference to supracondylar humerus fractures. J Orthop Sci 2001; 6: 312-5
102. Banas MP, Lewis RA. Nonunion of an olecranon epiphyseal plate stress fracture in an adolescent. Orthopaedics 1995; 18: 1111-2
103. Ellis JA, Kierulf JC, Klassen TP. Injuries associated with in-line skating from the Canadian hospitals injury reporting and prevention program database. Can J Public Health 1995; 86: 133-6
104. Francis R, Bunch T, Chandler B. Little league elbow: a decade later. Phys Sportsmed 1978; 6: 88-94
105. Marchi AG, Di Bello D, Messi G, et al. Permanent sequelae in sports injuries: population based study. Arch Dis Child 1999; 81: 324-8
106. Maffulli N, Chan D, Aldridge MJ. Derangement of the articular surfaces of the elbow in young gymnasts. J Ped Orthop 1992; 12: 344-50
107. Hutchinson MR, Wynn S. Biomechanics and development of the elbow in the young throwing athlete. Clin Sports Med 2004; 23: 531-44
108. Elliot B, Grove JR, Gibson B, et al. Three dimensional cinematographic analysis of the fastball and curveball pitches in baseball. Int J Sport Biomech 1986; 2: 20-8
109. Escamillia RF, Fleisig GS, Barrantine SW, et al. Kinematic comparisons of throwing different types of baseball pitches. J Appl Biomech 1998; 14: 1-23
110. Heller D, Routley V, Chambers S. Rollerblading injuries in young people. J Paediatr Child Health 1996; 32: 35-8
111. Mitts KG, Hennrikus WL. In-line skating fractures in children. J Pediatr Orthop 1996; 16: 640-3
112. Marx RG, Sperling JW, Cordasco FA. Overuse injuries of the upper extremities in tennis players. Clin Sports Med 2001; 20: 439-51
113. Hergenroeder AC. Prevention of sports injuries. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 1057-63
114. Krowchuck DP. The preparticipation athletic examination: a closer look. Pediatr Ann 1997; 26: 37-47
115. Risser WL, Hoffman HM, Bellah GG Jr, et al. A cost-benefit analysis of preparticipation sports examination of adolescent athletes. J Sch Health 1985; 55: 270-3
116. Little League Baseball Inc. Official regulations and playing rules of Little League Baseball. Williamsport (PA): Little League Baseball Inc., 1991: 13
117. Wells MJ, Bell GW. Concerns on little league elbow. J Athle Train 1995; 30: 249-53
118. Bryan W. Baseball. In: Reider B, editor. Sports medicine: the school age athlete. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 1991: 447-56
119. Green CP. The curve ball and the elbow. In: Zarins B, Andrews JR, Carson WG, editors. Injuries to the throwing arm. Philadelphia (PA): WB Saunders, 1985: 38-9
120. Andrews JR, Fleisig GS. How many pitches should I allow my child to throw? USA Baseball News 1996 Apr, 5
121. Whiteside JA, Andrews JR, Fleisig GS. Elbow injuries in young baseball players. Physician Sportsmed 1999; 27: 87
122. Christopher NC, Congeni J. Orthopaedic emergencies: overuse injuries in the pediatric athlete: evaluation, initial management and strategies for prevention. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med 2002; 3: 188-228
123. Uhl TL, Madaleno JA. Rehabilitation concepts and supportive devices for overuse injuries of the upper extremities. Clin Sports Med 2001; 20: 621-39
124. Micheli LJ, Glassman R, Klein M. The prevention of sports injuries in children. Clin Sports Med 2000; 19: 821-34
125. Mackie SJ, Taunton JE. Injuries in female gymnasts: trends suggest prevention tactics. Phys Sportsmed 1994; 22: 40-5
126. Caine D, Roy S, Singer K, et al. Stress changes of the distal radial growth plate: a radiographic survey of 60 young competitive gymnasts and an epidemiological review of the related literature. Am J Sports Med 1992; 20: 290-8
127. Kolt GS, Kirby RJ. Epidemiology of injuries in Australian female gymnasts. Sport Med Train Rehab 1995; 6: 223-31
128. Kolt GS, Kirby RJ. Epidemiology of injury in elite and subelite female gymnasts: a comparison of retrospective and prospective findings. Br J Sports Med 1999; 33: 312-6
129. Bak K, Kalms SB, Olsen J, et al. Epidemiology of injuries in gymnastics. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1994; 4: 148-54
130. Warda L, Harlos S, Klassen TP, et al. An observational study of protective equipment used among in-line skaters. Inj Prev 1998; 4: 198-202
131. Beirness DJ, Foss RD, Desmond KJ. Use of protective equipment by in-line skaters: an observational study. Inj Prev 2001; 7: 51-5
132. de Nooijer J, de Wit M, Steenhuis I. Why young Dutch in-line skaters do (not) use protection equipment. Eur J Pub Health 2004; 14: 178-81
133. International In-Line Skating Association. Guidelines for establishing in-line skate trails in parks and recreational areas. Minneapolis (MN): International In-Line Skating Association, 1992