Set in stone? Statues and slavery in London

History Workshop Journal

Volumn 64, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 162-199

  Dresser, Madge ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 35648939379     PISSN: 13633554     EISSN: 14774569     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/hwj/dbm032     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. John R. Gillis, Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, Princeton, 1994, pp. 3-4;
2. Johanna C. Kardux, 'Monuments of the Black Atlantic: Slavery Memorials in the United States and the Netherlands', in Blackening Europe: The African American Presence, ed. Heike Raphael-Hernandez, New York and London, 2004, pp. 100-1;
3. James E. Young, The Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning, New Haven and London, 1993, pp. 27ff;
4. Iwona Irwin-Zarecka, Frames of Remembrance, New Brunswick, N.J. and London, 1994, p. 4.
5. See also Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, transl. and ed. Lewis A. Coser, Chicago, 1992;
6. Pierre Nora, Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, ed. Lawrence D. Kritzman, vol. 1, New York, 1996;
7. Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory, vol. 1. London, 1994.
8. Madge Dresser, Slavery Obscured: The Social History of the Slave Trade in an English Provincial Port, London, 2001, pp. 3-4;
9. Beth Kowaleski Wallace, The British Slave Trade and Public Memory, New York, 2006, pp. 61 2;
10. 'The John Turner Phone-In', BBC Radio Bristol, 9:05 am, 31 May 2005.
11. Seymour Drescher, 'Commemorating Slavery and Abolition in the United States of America', in Facing up to the Past: Perspectives on the Commemoration of Slavery from Africa, the Americas and Europe, ed. Gert Oostindie, Kingston, Jamaica, 2001, p. 112.
12. The terms public memorial, public monument and public statue are used more or less inter-changeably in this article.
13. See Robert S. Nelson and Margaret Olin, Monument and Memory, Made and Unmade, Chicago, 2003, p. 8.
14. Young, The Texture of Memory, pp. 3 and 208.
15. See Mary Ann Steggler, Statues of the Raj, London (British Association for Cemeteries in South Asia), 2000;
16. Joan Michèle Coutu, 'Eighteenth-Century British Monuments and the Politics of Empire', PhD. Dissertation, London University, 1993, esp. p. 23, n. 20.
17. Kowaleski Wallace (British Slave Trade and Public Memory) and Marcus Wood (Blind Memory: Visual Representations of Slavery in England and America 1780-1865, Manchester, 2000) do not focus on sculpture;
18. while the concern is local in Christine Chivallon, 'Bristol and the Eruption of Memory: Making the Slave-Trading Past Visible', Social and Cultural Geography 2:3, 2001, pp. 347-63
19. and Olivette Otele's doctoral dissertation, 'Mémoire et Politique: L'Enrichissement de Bristol par le Commerce Triangulaire, Objet de Polémique', Paris, Sorbonne University, E.A. 3557, Ecole Doctorale IV, 19 Nov. 2005, and in the chapter by Pat McLernon and Sue Griffiths, 'Liverpool and the Heritage of the Slave Trade', in The Construction of Built Heritage: A North European Perspective on Policies, Practices and Outcomes, ed. Angela Phelps, G. J. Ashworth and Bengt O. H. Johansson, London, 2002, pp. 191-205.
20. John Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom': Commemoration, Ritual and British Transatlantic Slavery, Manchester, 2007;
21. Stuart Burch, 'Shaping Symbolic Space: Parliament Square, London as a Sacred Site', in The Construction of Built Heritage, pp. 223ff.;
22. Stuart Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State: The Monuments and Memorials in Parliament Square, London', Nottingham Trent PhD, 2002.
23. See John Siblon, 'Black Britons - Where are their Monuments?', Berkshire Family Historian, December 2002, http://www.berksfhs.org.uk/journal/Dec202/BlackBritons.htm (accessed 2 Feb. 2005)
24. James Walvin and Alex Tyrrell, 'Whose History Is it? Memorializing Britain's Involvement in Slavery', in Contested Sites: Commemoration, Memorial and Popular Politics in Nineteenth-Century Britain, ed. Paul A. Pickering and Alex Tyrrell, Aldershot, 2004, especially pp. 147-53. Thanks to John Siblon for this last reference.
25. Philip Ward-Jackson, Public Sculpture in the City of London, Liverpool, 2003.
26. See http://www.pmsa.ech.kel.ac.uk (accessed 5 Nov. 2005)
27. Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England): An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in London, 4 vols, London, 1924.
28. See also 'Public Statues in London', The Times, 4 July 1862, p. 6 (list of statues under the charge of the Ministry of Works).
29. Quotation from James Fentress and Chris Wickham, Social Memory, Oxford and Cambridge Mass. (1992), 1994, p. 68.
30. See also Eric Foner, 'Our Monumental Mistakes', a review essay in The Nation, 8 Nov. 1999, at http://www.thenation.com/ doc.mhtml%3Fi=19991108&s=foner (accessed 2 Feb. 2005).
31. Susannah Radstone, 'Reconceiving Binaries: The Limits of Memory', History Workshop 59, spring 2005, p. 137.
32. The Times, 20 Nov. 1934, p. 11.
33. Newton was vicar of St Mary Woolnoth from 1780. A photograph of Newton's monument and a transcription of its inscription is available at the website of the John Newton International Centre for Christian Studies, http://www.johnewtoncentre.org/john_newton.htm (accessed 16 March 2006).
34. The Times, 20 Nov. 1934. The mistreated African was Jonathan Strong: See 'Strong, Somerset and Sharp - liberating black slaves in England', in website of the Guildhall Library Manuscript Section, http://www.history.ae.uk/gh/strong.htm (accessed 17 March 2006).
35. The Times, 30 July 1934, p. 7.
36. For the importance of the colonial trade generally in this period, see Nuala Zahedieh, 'Overseas Expansion and Trade in the Seventeenth Century', in The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century, ed. Nicholas Canny, vol. 1, Oxford, 1998, pp. 418-21
37. and Perry Gaucci, 'Informality and Influence: The Overseas Merchants and Livery Companies 1660-1720', in Guilds, Society and Economy in London 1450-1800, ed. Ian Anders Gadd and Patrick Wallis, London, 2002, pp. 127-40;
38. for examples of City merchants with slavery-related interests, see the appendix to City Merchants and the Arts 1670 1720, ed. Mireille Galinou, London, 2004, pp. 191-7;
39. and The Letters of William Freeman, London Merchant, 1678-1685, ed. David Hancock, London Record Society, 2002, vol. 36, esp. pp. xi, xiii-xxi, xxxvi-xxxviii.
40. Anon. [Morgan Godwin or Godwyn], The REVIVAL: Or directions for a Sculpture, describing the extraordinary Care and Diligence of our Nation in publishing the Faith among Infidels In America, and elsewhere; compared with other both Primitive and Other Profeffors of Christianity London, printed by J. Darby, 1682, Early English Books On Line. My thanks to the University of Cambridge Library for assistance in locating this source. Godwin's other work includes The Negro's and Indians [sic] Advocate suing for their admission into the Church or a persuasive to the Instructing and Baptising of the Negro's and Indians in our Plantations..., London, J.D., 1680, and A Supplement to the Negro's and Indians' Advocate or some further consideration and proposal, London, 1681.
41. [Benjamin] Ralph, A Critical Review of the Publick Buildings, Statues, and Ornaments in and about London and Westminster, London, 1734, p. 95. The quotation ends:'... and I am sorry to say we are generally defective in all'. Ralph excepted the recent statue of Sir Isaac Newton from his criticism.
42. See Virginia Bever Platt, 'The East India Company and the Madagascar Slave Trade', William and Mary Quarterly (third series) 26, 1969, pp. 548-71.
43. Moore was president of Christ's Hospital; his other benefactions included the founding of schools both at Christ's Hospital and at Applebee, Leicestershire, where he had inherited land from his father.
44. Clayton's statue is not mentioned in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; but see Margaret Baker, Discovering London Statues and Monuments, Buckinghamshire, 2002, p. 117;
45. Leigh's New Picture of London, London, 1859, cited at http://londonancestor.com/leights/chr-thomas.htm (accessed 29 July 2005)
46. Peter Cunningham, Handbook of London, 1850, at: http://www.victorianlondon.org/health/stthomas.htm (accessed 29 July 2005);
47. for details on the statue see the Public Monuments and Sculpture Association data base at: http://pmsa.cch.kcl.ac.uk/CL/CLLH-27.htm
48. Clayton held the posts of London Alderman (1670-83), Lord Mayor of London (1679-80) and MP for the City of London (1678-81) and was Colonel of the Orange Regiment of Militia 'at various times between 1680-1702': see the catalogue of the British Library of Political and Economic Science, http://www.aim25.ac.uk (accessed 30 Jan. 2005);
49. B. W. E. Alford, and T. C. Barker, A History of the Carpenters' Company, London, 1968, pp. 134-5 and 141-2;
50. Frank Melton, 'Clayton, Sir Robert (1629-1707)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (henceforth DNB), ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison, Oxford, 2004, online edn ed. Lawrence Goldman. Oct. 2005, at http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/5579 (accessed 9 April 2006).
51. On his death he reportedly left £2,300 to the hospital: Leigh's New Picture of London, London, 1819, 'St. Thomas's Hospital', at http://www.londonancestor.com/leights/chrthomas.htm (accessed 25 July 2005).
52. Alexander Moore, 'Trott, Nicholas (1663-1740)', Oxford DNB, 2004, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/68759 (accessed 9 April 2006).
53. Nicholas Trott was Perient Trott's grandson: http://www.libarts.ucok.edu/ history/faculty/roberson/course/1483/suppl/chpV/Nicholas%20Trott
54. See Perient Trott, A True Relation of the Just and Unjust Proceedings of the Somer-Islands Company, London,1676, p. 2.
55. According to Frank T. Melton, Sir Robert Clayton and the Origins of English Deposit Banking 1658-1685, Cambridge, 1986, p. 69, Clayton received a share in the Somers Island Company as his dowry and though his wife was not wealthy when they married, her father later left Clayton's grandson seventy-five acres of land in Hamilton: Will of Perient Trott, 18 Sept. 1679, The National Archive (TNA), PROB 11/360.
56. Kenneth Gordon Davies, The Royal African Company, 1957, see pp. 67-8 and p. 36.
57. For Clayton in Bermuda see also Winfred T. Root, 'The Lords of Trade and Plantations 1675-1696', American Historical Review 23, October 1917, at http://www.dinsdoc.com/root-lhtm (accessed July 16 2005);
58. Calendar of State Papers Col. 1689-92, para 1843 pp. 555-7;
59. for Bermuda's role in the slave-trade see Clifford E. Smith and Clarence V. H. Maxwell, 'A Bermuda Smuggling-Slave Trade: The "Manilla Wreck" opens Pandora's Box', Slavery and Abolition 23: 1, April 2002, pp. 57-86.
60. According to Guildhall Library, British Biographical Index, 'John Cass', John Cass's father Thomas 'was a man of means and his ample fortune was passed to his only son'. We know Thomas Cass was a carpenter to the Tower of London but we know little about his other investments. Davies, Royal African Company, p. 379,
61. lists a Col. John Cass as a member of the Royal African Company's Board of Assistants 1705-8 and see TNA, 'Minute Book of the Court of Assistants of the Royal Africa Company no. 13-28 May 1702-14 June 1705, T70/87, p. 195; T70/180 (np) near p. 22.
62. Cass's membership of the RAC is acknowledged in The House of Commons 1690-1715, ed. Eveline Cruickshanks, Stuart Handley and D. W. Hayton, vol. 3, Cambridge, 2002, p. 486-7,
63. but ignored by Thomas Seccombe (revised D.W. Hayton), 'Sir John Cass', in Oxford DNB, vol. 10, 2004, p. 487.
64. For his status, his election as MP in 1710, his appointment as Alderman of Portsoken ward in the City of London, his status as Sheriff in 1711, his knighthood in 1712 and his service as Colonel of the Orange Regiment in 1713-14, see Aldermen of the City of London, ed. Alfred B. Beaven, London, 2 vols, vol. 1, 1908, pp. 185, 259,326, 333 and vol. 2, 1913, p. 122.
65. For his RAC shares on his death, see Guildhall Library, Manuscript Section, 'An Account of an Estate late of Sir John Cass, Knight and Alderman of London deceased', ms.31, 042, 438.4;
66. Nick Hervey, 'Thomas Guy', Oxford DNB, vol. 24, p. 333.
67. The slaving activities of the South Sea Company are often ignored or overlooked as historical work on the Company usually focuses on its financial history: Helen Paul, 'The South Sea Company's Slaving Activities', in Abstracts of New Researchers' Papers and Abstracts of other Academic Papers given at the Economic History Society Annual Conference 2-4 April 2004, p. 16.
68. But, as both Paul and Hancock remind us, the Company gained a contract to transport and supply slaves to the Spanish colonies in 1712: David Hancock, Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735-85;
69. Cambridge, 1995, p. 27;
70. see also Joseph Inikori, Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development, Cambridge, 2002, p. 321,
71. which echoes P. G. M. Dickinson, The Financial Revolution in England: a Study in the Development of Public Credit, 1688-1756, London, 1967 in citing the Company's importance in the development of the overseas credit networks so crucial to the growth of the Atlantic slave-based economy.
72. Tancred Borenius, Forty London Statues and Public Monuments, London, 1926, pp. 55-6.
73. Oxford DNB, http://217.169.56.135/view/article/25730 (accessed 10 April 2006)
74. See for example, http://www.applebymagna.org.uk/appleby_history/school (accessed 27 July 2005),
75. where Sir John Moore is reported to have made his money when Lord Mayor of London and http://applebymagna.org.uk/appleby_history/ in_focus12_moores_1.htm (accessed 10 April 2006).
76. Richard Sheridan, 'William Beckford', Oxford DNB, vol. 24, p. 334.
77. Beckford gave very luxurious banquets as Mayor, described as more elaborate than any since Henry VIII. One banquet alone was said to have cost him £10,000. See 'London and the Slave Trade', Guildhall Library Manuscripts Section, http://www.history.ac.uk/gh/beckford.htm (accessed 20 Jan. 2007).
78. James A. Ganz, 'A City Artist: Robert Robinson', in City Merchants and the Arts 1670-1720, ed. Mireille Galinou, London, 2004, esp. pp.113-18. According to e-mail correspondence (21 March 2006) from Robert Jeffries, a family historian who claims descent from him, one Alderman John Jeffreys, Welsh by birth, had 'well over 10,000 acres of tobacco farmland in Virginia' and was a tobacco merchant in the late 17th century. He left his money to two nephews one of whom - another John - was also a London Alderman.
79. For Christies' sale of 'carved blackamores' from the early eighteenth century see The Times, 30 May 1975, p. 16.
80. For kneeling slaves by Van Ost (or Nost), see Margaret Whinney, Sculpture in Britain, 1530-1830, London, 1964, p. 133. John Cheere also produced lead garden ornaments of 'nubians' or 'blackamores' holding sundials or trays, which are still popular today.
81. Coutu, 'Eighteenth-century British Monuments', p. 28. According to information kindly supplied by Dr Tony Trowles, librarian at the Westminster Abbey library in 2002, only two dozen or so of the 800 monuments now in the Abbey were paid for directly by Parliament.
82. John Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom': Commemoration, Ritual and British Transatlantic Slavery, Manchester, 2007. This excellent book appeared as this article was about to go to press. References to it here are based on a pre-publication manuscript and will not include specific page references.
83. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', p. 146.
84. Judith Jennings, The Business of Abolishing the British Slave Trade 1783-1807, London and Portland, Oregon, 1997, pp. 115-30, argues that the Committee was more liberal and middle-class in social origin than the African Institution, whose focus was more on missionary work;
85. Walvin and Tyrrell, 'Whose History Is It?', in Contested Sites, ed. Pickering and Tyrrell, pp. 152-4.
86. John Wolffe, 'Inglis, Sir Robert Harry, second baronet (1786-1855)', Oxford DNB, http://oxforddnb.com/view/article/14406 (accessed 19 June 2007).
87. G. M. Ditchfield, 'Sharp, Granville (1735-1813)', Oxford DNB, http://oxforddnb.com//view/article/25208 (accessed 19 June 2007);
88. Daniel B. Wallace, 'Granville Sharp: A Model of Evangelical Scholarship and Social Activism', Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society December 1998, at http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/ mi_qa3817/is_ai_n8818054/pg_3 (accessed 3 March 2006).
89. Marie Busco, Westmacott, Sir Richard (1775-1856)', Oxford DNB http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/29114 (accessed 24 Jan. 2006);
90. Rupert Gunnis, Dictionary of British Sculptors 1660-1851, London (1953), 1968, pp. 422-3;
91. Walvin and Tyrrell, 'Whose History is it?' in Contested Sites, ed. Pickering and Tyrrell, p. 151.
92. See also the Web Gallery of Art webpage, where an oddly denigrating attitude toward Africans is replicated in the description of the statue: Westmacott's principal work is the monument for the statesman Charles James Fox (1749-1806), who had been a Member of the Parliament, became a lord of the Admiralty, and from 1772-74 was a commissioner of the Treasury. Among his notable merits were his attempts to abolish the slave-trade and his support for the rights of the North American colonies. Westmacott pictorialized three basic elements of Fox's political career. Fox dies in the arms of the allegory of Liberty (the high point of the group); leaning over his feet is the mourning allegory of Peace; and the African squats before him for his forceful intervention on behalf of his race [emphasis mine]. The African figure is kneeling on one knee - hardly 'squatting'. See http://www.wga.hu/ frames-e.html?/html/w/westmaco/mon_fox.html (accessed 21 Feb. 2006) and fig. 8 above.
93. L. G. Mitchell, 'Fox, Charles James (1749-1806)', Oxford DNB, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10024 (accessed 28 March 2006).
94. Coutu, 'Eighteenth-Century British Monuments', pp. 234;
95. Neville Connell, 'Church Monuments in Barbados', The Bajan, October 1964, p. 10;
96. Stewart Perowne, 'Monuments in Barbados', Country Life, 7 Dec. 1951, p. 1,942;
97. and Gunnis, Dictionary of British Sculptors, pp. 424-6.
98. http://pmsa.ech.kel.ac.uk (accessed 24 July 2005);
99. his planting interests are alluded to in http://www.porteities.org.uk/ london/server.php?show=ConNarrative.40&chapterId=514 (accessed 24 July 2005).
100. Richard Westmacott to George Vincent, 27 Nov. 1821: 'Mr. Westmacott compints to Mr. Vincent in consequence of another pressing request from the Duke of Bedford that Mr. Fox's Monument may be erected [and] begs the favour of Mr. Vincent to acquaint him whether the Dean and Chapters Permission is yet obtained for that purposed. Mr. W. is going to spend a few days at Woburn Abbey next week & it would he knows gratify the Duke exceedingly to hear the work was proceeding...': Westminster Abbey Muniments (WAM), 66211; Westmacott to Vincent, 26? May 1822: 'Sir A Committee, on Mr Fox's Monument was held at Brookes on the 17th Inst and I am desired by Lord Holland to make immediate application to the Dean and Chapter of Westminster for permission to erect that work...', WAM, 66213. See also Busco, Westmacott, p. 72.
101. I am grateful to Philip Ward Jackson of the Courtauld Institute Library for discussing this sculpture. Busco, Westrnacott, p. 72;
102. Loren Reid, Charles James Fox: A Man for the People, London, 1969, pp. 435-6.
103. Buscoe, Westmacott, p. 72.
104. Whinney, Sculpture in Britain, p. 388.
105. Regarding Wilson, see Hugh Honour, The Image of the Black in Western Art, Houston, 1989, vol. 4, pp. 98, 221,
106. cited in Busco, Westmacott, p. 72;
107. Kirk Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America, Princeton, 1997.
108. Regarding the statue itself see Gunnis, Dictionary of British Sculptors, p. 279.
109. See also David Bindman and Malcolm Baker, Roubiliac and the Eighteenth Century Monument: Sculpture as Theatre, New Haven and London, 1995, pp. 2-8.
110. Wilberforce on a conversation with Fox, recorded in Diary of Joseph Farington, ed. Kathryn Cave, London and New Haven, 1982, vol. 8, p. 2,818.
111. For allusions to Fox's poor physical state see Diary of Joseph Farington, vol. 8, pp. 2,803,2,809,2,814,2,818, 2,819, 2,833, 2,850, 2,855-6. My reading of Fox's physique is based on my own observation of the statue.
112. Gunnis, Dictionary of British Sculptors, 1660-1851, p. 425;
113. Busco, Westmacott, p. 72.
114. Gunnis, Dictionary of British Sculptors, p. 222;
115. Terry Friedman, 'Joseph, Samuel (1790/91-1850)', Oxford DNB, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15133 (accessed 24 Jan. 2006)
116. Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom'.
117. I am grateful to Jenny Alexander, Assistant Curator of Fine Arts at York Art Gallery, for this information on Joseph's earlier work (email to me 31 Jan. 2007). Samuel Joseph's name suggests Jewish origins and if he had converted to Christianity, he might well have attracted Evangelical patronage for that reason. See Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom' for discussion of the Wilberforce statue.
118. Application from Sir Robert Harry Inglis, 20 March 1835, WAM, 66322. In the end, the Abbey's fee for permission to erect the statue alone cost the Committee E200: See draft receipt, WAM 66323. A bust of Wilberforce sculpted by Joseph in 1833 is now at the City Gallery, York.
119. Joseph Farington reports in May 1806 that 'Mr. Coke [of Norfolk] said it seemed odd that a man of Wilberforce's narrow fortune with little property in the County, should oppose himself to such families as those of Lord Fitzwilliam and Lord Harewood, thus showing his own feeling of the claims of aristocratick power', Diary of Joseph Farington, vol. 8, p. 3,050.
120. The drawing is in the possession of the Westminster Abbey Muniments.
121. Friedman, 'Joseph, Samuel (1790/91-1850)', Oxford DNB, 2004, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15133 (accessed 29 March 2006).
122. Whinney, Sculpture in Britain, p. 227.
123. The Times, 6 May 1841, p. 6.
124. A Historical Guide to World Slavery, ed. Seymour Drescher and Stanley L. Engerman, Oxford and New York, 1998, p. 13.
125. Thanks to Philip Ward Jackson for information on this statue. For more on Thrupp see http://www.torre-abbey.org.uk/torreabbey-souvenirguide.pdf.
126. See also Martin Greenwood, 'Thrupp, Frederick (1812 1895)', Oxford DNB, 2004,
127. or Campbell Dodgson, 'Thrupp, Frederick (1812 1895)', DNB, 1898 edn, both at http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/27397 (accessed 24 Jan. 2006);
128. Walvin and Tyrrell, 'Whose History Is It?', in Contested Sites, ed. Pickering and Tyrrell, p. 154.
129. A photo of the statue and the transcription of its inscription can be found at http://www.westminster-abbey.org/library/burial/buxton.htm
130. Thomas Clarkson's early differences with Zachary Macaulay and the Clapham sect stemmed from the treatment of his brother John, whose racially and politically progressive views caused him to be dismissed as governor of Sierra Leone.
131. 'The Life of Wilberforce', The Times, 18 May 1838, p. 5;
132. 'Clarkson's Strictures on... Wilberforce', The Times, 22 Aug. 1838, p. 3;
133. Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains: The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery, London, 2005, p. 350.
134. The continuing influence of Bishop Samuel Wilberforce in particular seems to have been a factor in the reluctance to honour Clarkson. Walvin and Tyrrell also note Clarkson's absence: 'Whose History Is It?', p. 158.
135. Marcus Wood, Slavery, Empathy and Pornography, Oxford and New York, 2002, pp.152-69;
136. See too Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metrapole and Colony in the English Imagination 1830-1867, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 141-73.
137. 'The New Sugar Bill', The Times, 19 Aug. 1846, p. 6.
138. Fraser's Magazine for Town and Country 40, London, February 1849;
139. http://www.cepa.newschool.edu/het/texts/carlyle/carlodnq.htm (accessed 3 March 2006).
140. See material on John Edward Carew (1785-1868) including the piece on him in the London Illustrated News, 15 Dec. 1849, p. 392, Conway Library Archives, Courtauld Institute, Boxes on British Sculpture.
141. The Times, 6 Dec. 1849, p. 3.
142. Hall, Civilising Subjects, p. 341.
143. See Cedric J. Robinson, 'The Inventions of the Negro', Social Identities 7: 3, 2001, pp. 347-9.
144. 'Powers' Statue of the Greek Slave', The National Era, Washington DC, 2 Sept. 1847, from http//jefferson.village.virginia.edu:1852/utc/ pretexts/sentimnt/eneric_BookTextView (accessed 8 March 2002);
145. See also Joy Kasson, Marble Queens and Captives: Women in Nineteenth-Century American Sculpture, New Haven, 1990, at http://faculty-web.at.northwester.edu/uc/efp/art.html (accessed 8 March 2002).
146. Elizabeth Lee, 'The Greek Slave in Punch', in http://www.victorianweb.org/victorian/punch/greekslavel.html (accessed 8 March 2002)
147. Albert Boime, The Art of Exclusion: Representing Blacks in the Nineteenth Century, London, 1990, pp. 156-7.
148. Boime, Art of Exclusion, pp. 156-7.
149. Some disquiet was voiced in The Times, at the prospect that a statue of Dr Jenner ('the hero of vaccination') be placed alongside those of General Havelock and Sir Charles Napier, asking if Dr Jenner should 'be found in such formidable society?', The Times, 3 May 1858, p. 8.
150. See 'Public Statues in London', The Times, 4 July 1862, p. 6 (statues under the charge of the Ministry of Works).
151. The statue of Mansfield is by E. H. Baily, a Bristol-born sculptor who carved it in 1855. For pictures of these sculptures, see 'view Finder' on the website of English Heritage at http://www.heritage.org.uk.
152. Hall, Civilising Subjects, especially pp. 432-3;
153. Douglas A. Lorimer, Colour, Class and the Victorians: English Attitudes to the Negro in the Mid-Nineteenth Century, New York and Leicester, 1978, pp. 179-86, pp. 190-200, pp. 203-6;
154. Boime, Art of Exclusion, pp. 158-60 and 172-84. This trend is exemplified by another statue produced in 1868 by the sculptor Richard Bell, which stood for many years in Blackburn Town Hall. See Richard Jenkyns, Dignity and Decadence: Victorian Art and the Classical Inheritance, Cambridge, Mass., 1992.
155. See also the reception and subsequent popularization of August Biard's 1833 painting, 'Scene on the African Coast', as described in Wood, Blind Memory, pp. 43-5.
156. Arguably, Palmerston's statue in Parliament Square (1876) might count as celebrating an anti-slavery campaigner, but Palmerston, 'torn between lifelong opposition to slavery and the attraction of a permanently divided United States, the probable outcome of a brokered settlement', was an ambiguous figure in this regard.
157. Stuart James Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', esp. pp. 140-6;
158. Margaret Baker, London Statues and Monuments, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buxton_Memorial_Fountain (accessed 25 July 2005).
159. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State'.
160. 'The drinking fountain when completed will cost upwards of $1,200 exclusive of water supply, which is undertaken by the Metropolitan Drinking-Fountain Association', The Times, 27 Jan. 1866, p. 12;
161. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', pp. 140-6. My thanks to Hilda Kean of Ruskin College for reminding me of the monument's links with the temperance movement.
162. See 'O.'s' letter to The Times, 1 Nov. 1867, p. 7 for a jaundiced and implicitly conservative condemnation of the memorial, ostensibly on aesthetic grounds alone.
163. John Blackwood, London's Immortals: The Complete Outdoor Commemorative Statues, London, 1987, p. 191.
164. Kirk Savage, 'The Politics of Memory: Black Emancipation and the Civil War Monument', in Commemorations, ed. Gillis, p. 130: Said of America but I think applicable to England.
165. Blackwood, London's Immortals, p. 14.
166. The Times, 27 March 1907, p. 5.
167. Blackwood, London's Immortals, pp. 228-9.
168. 'The Improved Benevolent Protective Order of Elks of the World', http://northbysouth.kenyon.edu/2000/Fraternal/ibpoew.htm; DOI:10.1215/ 01455532-28-3-439. Of course, the Buxton statue may be a partial exception to this, since it was in part financed (how far is unknown) by black Caribbean subscribers.
169. For general discussion of this organization, see Bayliss J. Camp and Orit Kent, '"What a Mighty Power We Can Be": Individual and Collective Identity in African American and White Fraternal Initiation Rituals', Social Science History 28: 3, 2004, pp. 439-83.
170. The Times, 24 July 1933, p. 7.
171. This was a misnomer as slaves in Mauritius were not emancipated by this Act.
172. The Times, 20 July 1834, p. 10;
173. see Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom'.
174. See notes 17-20 above and the corresponding text, and Oldfield, ' Chords of Freedom'.
175. The Times, 30 July 1834, p. 7.
176. See letter from K. E. Anderson of Wrexham to The Times, 17 May 1935, p. 12,
177. lamenting the disrepair of Clarkson's grave in Suffolk and asking 'Is England so unmindful of her heroes? Has Clarkson no descendants that they have thus forgotten their illustrious ancestor?' On Knibb's radicalism see Gad Heuman, 'Knibb, William (1803-1845)', Oxford DNB, 2004, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15714 (accessed 9 April 2006);
178. Hall, Civilising Subjects;
179. Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom'.
180. The Times, 1 Aug. 1934, p. 7.
181. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', pp. 317-22.
182. As with all public monuments erected since 1854, permission had to be given by the Office of Works, which would then be responsible for their maintenance, Blackwood, London's Immortals, p. 15.
183. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', pp. 322.
184. Oldfield, 'Chords of Freedom', seems to discount any political motivation at work here.
185. The Times, 14 Dec. 1949, p. 6.
186. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', pp. 328-9.
187. Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', p. 330.
188. See Burch, 'On Stage at the Theatre of State', p. 329;
189. Burch, on the difficulty of Liberal and Labour Icons to gain access to Parliament Square. Burch "On Stage at the Theatre of State', p. 52,
190. notes that the anti-slavery plaque on Derby's statue was removed in 1957 during the modernizing of the square, but Blackwood's London's Immortals, p. 190, shows that the plaque was replaced by 1989 if not before.
191. See my entry on 'Museums', in The Oxford Companion to Black History ed. David Dabydeen and John Gilmore, Oxford, 2000.
192. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History, Cambridge, 1995, pp. 2-4, 10.
193. Answers to written Parliamentary Questions, Hansard, 26 June 1991, col. 505, at http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199091/cmhansrd/ 1991-06-26/Writtens-3.html (accessed 25 March 2006).
194. See its leaflet 'Sites of Memory: The Slave Trade and Abolition', London, 2007.
195. See for example the debate on the refurbishment of Robert Milligan's statue at http://www.j12.org/j12/letft2.htm (accessed 10 April 2006)
196. or the blog about the Buxton memorial at http://www.mondaysmusings.blogspot.com/pictemps/buxton.html
197. or the black information link debate on the placing of the Mandela statue in Trafalgar or Parliament Square at http://www.blink.org.uk/ subeat.asp?key=388&grp=1 (accessed 8 April 2006).
198. There are currently two proposals for an African-centred monument. (1) The City of London Planning group is working with Black British Heritage on finding a sculptor for a proposed memorial to be located in Fen Court. This would be part of a wider private development scheme in the area being undertaken in liaison with the London Development Agency and funded under section 106 of the 1990 Town and Country Planning Act. See also 'Section 106', in the London Development Agency website, http://www.lda.gov.uk/server/show/conGlossary.80.
199. (2) The campaign for the Hyde Park statue is being organized by Memorial 2007, a grassroots London group which has also attracted some external funding. (My thanks to Oku Ekpenyon of Memorial 2007). See also 'Memorial 2007: Remembering Enslaved Africans and their descendants 1807-2007',at http://www.memorial2007.org.uk/
200. and City of London 'approved projects', at http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/our_services/ development_planning/planning/approved_projects.htm (accessed 19 March 2006).