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Volumn 98, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 447-467

Observers, objects, and the embedded eye; or, seeing and knowing in ptolemy and galen

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EYE; HISTORY; HUMAN; PERCEPTION; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; VISION; VISUAL SYSTEM FUNCTION;

EID: 35548954786     PISSN: 00211753     EISSN: 15456994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/521152     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (13)

References (129)
  • 1
    • 35548941107 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For this I can thank Kevin McNamee
    • For this I can thank Kevin McNamee.
  • 2
    • 35548946580 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983), puts these issues under the umbrella of styles of reasoning;
    • Ian Hacking, Representing and Intervening (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983), puts these issues under the umbrella of styles of reasoning;
  • 3
    • 35548978958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nelson Goodman, Ways of Worldmaking (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1978), frames it as a question of worlds;
    • Nelson Goodman, Ways of Worldmaking (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1978), frames it as a question of worlds;
  • 4
    • 35548969224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Paul Feyerabend, Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (London: Humanities, 1975), tries to locate it under the rubric of incommensurability;
    • Paul Feyerabend, Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (London: Humanities, 1975), tries to locate it under the rubric of incommensurability;
  • 5
    • 35548939807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Michel Foucault, Les mots et les choses: Un archéologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966), refers to epistemes;
    • Michel Foucault, Les mots et les choses: Un archéologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966), refers to epistemes;
  • 6
    • 35548969274 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and J. G. A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), speaks of discourses.
    • and J. G. A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), speaks of discourses.
  • 7
    • 84859829904 scopus 로고
    • Galen und the Zweite Sophistik
    • On these currents see, e.g, ed. Vivian Nutton London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine
    • On these "currents" see, e.g., Jutta Kollesch, "Galen und the Zweite Sophistik," in Galen: Problems and Prospects, ed. Vivian Nutton (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1981);
    • (1981) Galen: Problems and Prospects
    • Kollesch, J.1
  • 8
    • 85003513959 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Galen and the 'Second Sophistic,'
    • ed. Richard Sorabji London: Institute of Classical Studies
    • and Heinrich von Staden, "Galen and the 'Second Sophistic,'" in Aristotle and After, ed. Richard Sorabji (London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1997), pp. 33-54.
    • (1997) Aristotle and After , pp. 33-54
    • Heinrich von Staden1
  • 9
    • 35548990956 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Throughout this essay, the careful reader will notice that sensation and perception are being used virtually synonymously. Neither Ptolemy nor Galen had access to Bertrand Russell's very influential distinction between sensation and perception in The Analysis of Mind (London: Allen & Unwin, .1921). Indeed, the kinds of psychological burdens that Russell is flagging in perception as interposing and imposing on sensation only become really problematized (and so only begin to need systematic explanation) with, the advent of professional psychology in the nineteenth, century.
    • Throughout this essay, the careful reader will notice that "sensation" and "perception" are being used virtually synonymously. Neither Ptolemy nor Galen had access to Bertrand Russell's very influential distinction between sensation and perception in The Analysis of Mind (London: Allen & Unwin, .1921). Indeed, the kinds of psychological burdens that Russell is flagging in perception as interposing and imposing on sensation only become really problematized (and so only begin to need systematic explanation) with, the advent of professional psychology in the nineteenth, century.
  • 10
    • 35549007976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There are a few exceptions, however: Anthony Long, Ptolemy: Epistemology for the Scientist, in The Criterion of Truth, ed. Pamela Huby and Gordon Neal (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1989), pp. 151-178;
    • There are a few exceptions, however: Anthony Long, "Ptolemy: Epistemology for the Scientist," in The Criterion of Truth, ed. Pamela Huby and Gordon Neal (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1989), pp. 151-178;
  • 13
    • 35548990064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Both Galen and Ptolemy are often classed by modern readers as philosophical eclectics. Although the word is handy, it is not uncontroversial in this particular instance, and, at the very least, I would certainly not want eclectic to be understood as pejorative. On Galen's eclecticism see esp. Michael Frede, On Galen's Epistemology, in Galen, ed. Nutton (cit. n. 3), pp. 65-86;
    • Both Galen and Ptolemy are often classed by modern readers as philosophical eclectics. Although the word is handy, it is not uncontroversial in this particular instance, and, at the very least, I would certainly not want "eclectic" to be understood as pejorative. On Galen's eclecticism see esp. Michael Frede, "On Galen's Epistemology," in Galen, ed. Nutton (cit. n. 3), pp. 65-86;
  • 14
    • 35548987448 scopus 로고
    • Galen's Philosophical Eclecticism
    • Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt
    • R. J. Hankinson, "Galen's Philosophical Eclecticism," Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt, 2nd Ser., 1992, 36(5):3505-3522;
    • (1992) 2nd Ser , vol.36 , Issue.5 , pp. 3505-3522
    • Hankinson, R.J.1
  • 15
    • 84905616022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Galeno e la filosofia
    • Pierluigi Donini, "Galeno e la filosofia," ibid., pp. 3484-3505;
    • ibid , pp. 3484-3505
    • Donini, P.1
  • 17
    • 35548975122 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Ptolemy's see
    • On Ptolemy's see Long, "Ptolemy";
    • Ptolemy
    • Long1
  • 18
    • 35548989222 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the
    • Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society
    • and A. Mark Smith, Ptolemy's Theory of Visual Perception: An English Translation of the Optics (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 86[2]) (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, .1996), pp. 17-18.
    • (1996) Optics (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society , vol.86 , Issue.2 , pp. 17-18
    • Mark Smith, A.1
  • 19
    • 0343887468 scopus 로고
    • The History of the Concept of Eclecticism
    • On eclecticism, in general see, e.g, ed. J. M. Dillon and A. A. Long Berkeley: Univ. California Press
    • On eclecticism, in general see, e.g., Donini, "The History of the Concept of Eclecticism," in The Question of "Eclecticism," ed. J. M. Dillon and A. A. Long (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1988), pp. 15-33.
    • (1988) The Question of Eclecticism , pp. 15-33
    • Donini1
  • 20
    • 35548959097 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philosophers are wont to characterize representational accounts of perception in contrast to something called common sense realist accounts, but I think here they generally underestimate the common-sense nature of the representational accounts, which are, if anything, far more pervasive and deeply rooted at least since Locke
    • Philosophers are wont to characterize representational accounts of perception in contrast to something called "common sense" realist accounts, but I think here they generally underestimate the common-sense nature of the representational accounts, which are, if anything, far more pervasive and deeply rooted (at least since Locke).
  • 21
    • 0007041735 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g, New York: Columbia Univ. Press
    • See, e.g., Hilary Putnam., The Threefold Cord (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1999);
    • (1999) The Threefold Cord
    • Putnam, H.1
  • 23
    • 35548957717 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lorraine Daston and Kelley Wilder have pointed out to me that the line of argument here got a kind of second life in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in debates about the nature of photography. These debates run on two different (if overlapping) planes: (1) Is photography representational or (merely) causal? If only causal, can it be art, 2) What is the nature and value of photographic evidence versus other kinds of evidence? Both of these issues put the question of human agency and mediation between object and image front and center (and situated at just the point where Scepticism would drive the wedge in for the ancient problem, of perception, Much of the debate on photography (as Ted Cohen, What's Special about Photography, Monist, 1988, 71: 292-305, very rightly points out) sees the camera as implausibly autonomous
    • Lorraine Daston and Kelley Wilder have pointed out to me that the line of argument here got a kind of second life in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries in debates about the nature of photography. These debates run on two different (if overlapping) planes: (1) Is photography representational or (merely) causal? If only causal, can it be art? (2) What is the nature and value of photographic evidence versus other kinds of evidence? Both of these issues put the question of human agency and mediation between object and image front and center (and situated at just the point where Scepticism would drive the wedge in for the ancient problem, of perception). Much of the debate on photography (as Ted Cohen, "What's Special about Photography," Monist, 1988, 71: 292-305, very rightly points out) sees the camera as implausibly autonomous
  • 24
    • 0040950447 scopus 로고
    • Photography, Vision, and Representation
    • see also
    • (see also Joel Snyder and Neil Walsh Allen, "Photography, Vision, and Representation," Critical Inquiry, 1975, 2:143-169;
    • (1975) Critical Inquiry , vol.2 , pp. 143-169
    • Snyder, J.1    Walsh Allen, N.2
  • 25
    • 35548935003 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • contrast Kendall Walton, Transparent Pictures: On the Nature of Photographic Realism, ibid., 1984, 11:246-277. Take Bazin's very influential and highly provocative framing: L'originalité de la photographie par rapport à la peinture réside donc dans son objectivité essentielle. Aussi bien, le groupe de lentilles qui constitue l'oeil photographique substitué àl'oeil humain s'appelle-t-il précisément 'l'objectif.' Pour la première fois, entre l'objet initial et sa représentation, rien ne s'interpose qu'un autre objet Pour la première fois, une image du monde extérieur se forme automatiquement sans intervention créatrice de l'homme, selon un déterminisme rigoureux.
    • contrast Kendall Walton, "Transparent Pictures: On the Nature of Photographic Realism," ibid., 1984, 11:246-277). Take Bazin's very influential and highly provocative framing: "L'originalité de la photographie par rapport à la peinture réside donc dans son objectivité essentielle. Aussi bien, le groupe de lentilles qui constitue l'oeil photographique substitué àl'oeil humain s'appelle-t-il précisément 'l'objectif.' Pour la première fois, entre l'objet initial et sa représentation, rien ne s'interpose qu'un autre objet Pour la première fois, une image du monde extérieur se forme automatiquement sans intervention créatrice de l'homme, selon un déterminisme rigoureux."
  • 26
    • 35548938958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • André Bazin, Ontologie de l'image photographique (.1945), rpt. in Qu'est-ce que le cinéma? (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1975), pp. 9-17.
    • André Bazin, "Ontologie de l'image photographique" (.1945), rpt. in Qu'est-ce que le cinéma? (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1975), pp. 9-17.
  • 27
    • 35548979416 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In philosophical aesthetics, this same line of thought led Roger Scruton (Photography and Representation, Crit. Inq., 1981, 7:577-603)
    • In philosophical aesthetics, this same line of thought led Roger Scruton ("Photography and Representation," Crit. Inq., 1981, 7:577-603)
  • 28
    • 35548958638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Walton to argue that photographs (being causal) were not representations, which seemed to many to mean that they could not be art. Attempts to salvage representation in photography e.g., Donald Brook, Painting, Photography, and Representation, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1983, 42:171-180
    • and Walton to argue that photographs (being causal) were not representations, which seemed to many to mean that they could not be art. Attempts to salvage representation in photography (e.g., Donald Brook, "Painting, Photography, and Representation," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1983, 42:171-180
  • 29
    • 35548999110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • -misreading Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art [Indianapolis: Hackett, 1968] have unfortunately sometimes relied on interpreting representation linguistically (far too limiting!),
    • -misreading Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art [Indianapolis: Hackett, 1968]) have unfortunately sometimes relied on interpreting "representation" linguistically (far too limiting!),
  • 30
    • 35549007532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a trap that Scruton thankfully avoids, as does Gregory Currie, Photography, Painting, and Perception, J. Aesthet. Art Crit., 199.1, 49:23-29. Cohen is still, I think, the best way out of this whole quagmire. Here I cannot resist the urge to paraphrase the NRA: cameras do not shoot people; people shoot people.
    • a trap that Scruton thankfully avoids, as does Gregory Currie, "Photography, Painting, and Perception," J. Aesthet. Art Crit., 199.1, 49:23-29. Cohen is still, I think, the best way out of this whole quagmire. Here I cannot resist the urge to paraphrase the NRA: cameras do not shoot people; people shoot people.
  • 34
    • 35549007101 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • To be sure, the ways in which the radiation passes this information back, do usually depend on light as an actor, and this will complicate or at least qualify the use of the word extramission. See Smith Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics, p. 23f. Here and throughout, radiation is used in its root sense to refer only to things that travel in straight lines-i.e., as mathematical rays-rather than in the modern physical sense.
    • To be sure, the ways in which the radiation passes this information back, do usually depend on light as an actor, and this will complicate or at least qualify the use of the word "extramission." See Smith Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics, p. 23f. Here and throughout, "radiation" is used in its root sense to refer only to things that travel in straight lines-i.e., as mathematical rays-rather than in the modern physical sense.
  • 35
    • 35548932398 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Epicureans are perhaps the most obvious example of philosophers who are not extramissionists, but Plato and Aristotle, as well as most of the Presocratics for whom we have any information, cannot be counted as extramissionists either. Nevertheless, Mary Beagon has pointed out to me that Democritus's explanation of the Evil Eye uses a kind of extramission of malign particles to account for the effect (something similar can be found in Plutarch, Moralia 680b-682b), although this is not an explanation of vision per se.
    • The Epicureans are perhaps the most obvious example of philosophers who are not extramissionists, but Plato and Aristotle, as well as most of the Presocratics for whom we have any information, cannot be counted as extramissionists either. Nevertheless, Mary Beagon has pointed out to me that Democritus's explanation of the Evil Eye uses a kind of extramission of malign particles to account for the effect (something similar can be found in Plutarch, Moralia 680b-682b), although this is not an explanation of vision per se.
  • 36
    • 35548952158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Elder Pliny on the Human Animal: Natural History
    • See Mary Beagon, trans, Oxford: Clarendon
    • See Mary Beagon, trans., The Elder Pliny on the Human Animal: Natural History Book VII (Oxford: Clarendon, 2005), p. 139f.
    • (2005) Book VII
  • 37
    • 35548932399 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a good general overview of the different optical theories on offer in antiquity see the introduction to Smith, Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics
    • For a good general overview of the different optical theories on offer in antiquity see the introduction to Smith., Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics.
  • 38
    • 0024026814 scopus 로고
    • The Psychology of Visual Perception in Ptolemy's Optics
    • questions Lindberg's idea that there was a distinct philosophical tradition in optics
    • Finally, A. Mark Smith, "The Psychology of Visual Perception in Ptolemy's Optics," Isis, 1988, 79:188-207, questions Lindberg's idea that there was a distinct "philosophical tradition" in optics.
    • (1988) Isis , vol.79 , pp. 188-207
    • Finally, A.1    Smith, M.2
  • 39
    • 35548980814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pseudo-Aristotelian Problems 959a2f;
    • Pseudo-Aristotelian Problems 959a2f;
  • 41
    • 35549008807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (hereafter abbreviated as De plac. Hipp, et Plat.) 7.4. 11f. Here and elsewhere, all translations into English are my own.
    • (hereafter abbreviated as De plac. Hipp, et Plat.) 7.4. 11f. Here and elsewhere, all translations into English are my own.
  • 42
    • 35549002168 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This last group of objections to intromission is conditioned by the fact that the main intromissionist theory available in antiquity was Epicurean, where what we perceive are films or images of atoms that peel off of objects in every direction. See esp. De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.7.8f
    • This last group of objections to intromission is conditioned by the fact that the main intromissionist theory available in antiquity was Epicurean, where what we perceive are films or images of atoms that peel off of objects in every direction. See esp. De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.7.8f.
  • 43
    • 35548938515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Aristotle, Metaphysica 373a33f. Later commentaries on this passage identify the man as a certain Antipheron (Olympiodorus says he is from Tarentum, Alexander that he is from. Oreus, Aristotle does elsewhere refer by name to a certain Antipheron. of Oreus as being subject to a particular kind of madness that had him believing phantasms were real (De memoria et reminiscentia 451a8) but says nothing there about his eyesight, poor or otherwise. Michael of Ephesus, in the eleventh or twelfth century A.D, explicitly tries to bridge the gap by pointing out that Aristotle's tale about the anonymous self-seeing man was really about the Antipheron of Oreus mentioned in the De mem, In parva naturalia commentaria 17.30, Given the root meaning of the Greek name Antipheron one who goes in the opposite direction, however, it is hard not to see the association with the man whose reflection accompanied him everywhere as apocryphal
    • Aristotle, Metaphysica 373a33f. Later commentaries on this passage identify the man as a certain Antipheron (Olympiodorus says he is from Tarentum, Alexander that he is from. Oreus). Aristotle does elsewhere refer by name to a certain Antipheron. of Oreus as being subject to a particular kind of madness that had him believing phantasms were real (De memoria et reminiscentia 451a8) but says nothing there about his eyesight, poor or otherwise. Michael of Ephesus, in the eleventh or twelfth century A.D., explicitly tries to bridge the gap by pointing out that Aristotle's tale about the anonymous self-seeing man was really about the Antipheron of Oreus mentioned in the De mem. (In parva naturalia commentaria 17.30). Given the root meaning of the Greek name Antipheron ("one who goes in the opposite direction"), however, it is hard not to see the association with the man whose reflection accompanied him everywhere as apocryphal.
  • 44
    • 2542477782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tropes, Facts, and Empiricism
    • On tropes in the sense I mean here see
    • On tropes in the sense I mean here see Daryn Lehoux, "Tropes, Facts, and Empiricism," Perspectives on Science, 2003, 11:326-345.
    • (2003) Perspectives on Science , vol.11 , pp. 326-345
    • Lehoux, D.1
  • 46
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    • (hereafter abbreviated as Opt.) 2.9.
    • (hereafter abbreviated as Opt.) 2.9.
  • 48
    • 35549008444 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Galen's objection is at De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.7.10f.
    • Galen's objection is at De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.7.10f.
  • 49
    • 0347652851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Physiological and Psychological Grounds of Ptolemy's Visual Theory: Some Methodological Considerations
    • A. Mark Smith, "The Physiological and Psychological Grounds of Ptolemy's Visual Theory: Some Methodological Considerations," Journal of the Behavioral Sciences, 1998, 34:231 -246;
    • (1998) Journal of the Behavioral Sciences , vol.34 , pp. 231-246
    • Mark Smith, A.1
  • 50
    • 35548998683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ptolemy's Mathematical Models and Their Meaning
    • ed. Glen Van Brummelen and Michael Kinyon New York: Springer
    • Alexander Jones, "Ptolemy's Mathematical Models and Their Meaning," in Mathematics and the Historian's Craft: The Kenneth O. May Lectures, ed. Glen Van Brummelen and Michael Kinyon (New York: Springer, 2005), pp. 23-42;
    • (2005) Mathematics and the Historian's Craft: The Kenneth O. May Lectures , pp. 23-42
    • Jones, A.1
  • 52
    • 35549001716 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Euclid's rays are discrete, and objects can fall between individual rays when they are small or distant enough. Ptolemy argues specifically against this theory, preferring a visual continuum.
    • Euclid's rays are discrete, and objects can fall between individual rays when they are small or distant enough. Ptolemy argues specifically against this theory, preferring a visual continuum.
  • 53
    • 35549003547 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith, Psychology of Visual Perception in Ptolemy's Optics (cit. n. 11), p. 196, wants to see the flux as Stoic pneuma, the same substance Galen will have emanating from the eye, but this relies on a chain of inference that is not nearly so solid as I would like: that Ptolemy's virtus regitiva can be identified as equivalent to the Stoic hegemonikon Iam partial to accepting; but to move from, there to the idea that Ptolemy's flux must therefore also be Stoic is to overburden the initial equivalence unduly. In discussing a dream. I had, for example, I can easily use a phrase that is more or less equivalent to my subconscious without implying that I accept any other baggage of Freudian psychology (e.g., my Oedipal complex).
    • Smith, "Psychology of Visual Perception in Ptolemy's Optics" (cit. n. 11), p. 196, wants to see the flux as Stoic pneuma, the same substance Galen will have emanating from the eye, but this relies on a chain of inference that is not nearly so solid as I would like: that Ptolemy's virtus regitiva can be identified as equivalent to the Stoic hegemonikon Iam partial to accepting; but to move from, there to the idea that Ptolemy's flux must therefore also be Stoic is to overburden the initial equivalence unduly. In discussing a dream. I had, for example, I can easily use a phrase that is more or less equivalent to "my subconscious" without implying that I accept any other baggage of Freudian psychology (e.g., "my Oedipal complex").
  • 56
    • 34347352686 scopus 로고
    • Galen's Anatomy of the Soul
    • R. J. Hankinson, "Galen's Anatomy of the Soul," Phronesis, 1991, 36:197-233;
    • (1991) Phronesis , vol.36 , pp. 197-233
    • Hankinson, R.J.1
  • 57
    • 35548964602 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Von Staden, Body, Soul, and Nerves (cit. n. 6);
    • Von Staden, "Body, Soul, and Nerves" (cit. n. 6);
  • 58
    • 35548993602 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Galen's Psychology
    • ed. Jonathan Barnes and Jacques Jouanna Geneva: Hardt
    • and Teun Tieleman, "Galen's Psychology," in Galien et la philosophie, ed. Jonathan Barnes and Jacques Jouanna (Geneva: Hardt, 2003), pp. 131-169.
    • (2003) Galien et la philosophie , pp. 131-169
    • Tieleman, T.1
  • 59
    • 35549003548 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ǒpyavov is also the origin of the English. Organon, which collectively refers to Aristotle's logical books (where logic is conceived of as a basic instrument for doing philosophy), and hence by extension also Bacon's Novum organum.
    • Ǒpyavov is also the origin of the English. Organon, which collectively refers to Aristotle's logical books (where logic is conceived of as a basic instrument for doing philosophy), and hence by extension also Bacon's Novum organum.
  • 60
    • 35548942194 scopus 로고
    • On Galen's definition of the word see, trans. Margaret Tallmadge May Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell Univ. Press
    • On Galen's definition of the word see Galen, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body, trans. Margaret Tallmadge May (Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell Univ. Press, 1968), p. 67 n 3.
    • (1968) On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body , Issue.3 , pp. 67
    • Galen1
  • 61
    • 35548993601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • David Langslow has reminded me here of how rich a source of metaphor warfare is in pathology, anatomy, and therapeutics
    • David Langslow has reminded me here of how rich a source of metaphor warfare is in pathology, anatomy, and therapeutics.
  • 63
    • 35549007530 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Galen's definition(s) of Nature see esp. Jacques Jouanna, La notion de nature chez Galien, in Galten et la philosophie, ed. Barnes and Jouanna (cit. n. 21), pp. 229-268;
    • On Galen's definition(s) of Nature see esp. Jacques Jouanna, "La notion de nature chez Galien," in Galten et la philosophie, ed. Barnes and Jouanna (cit. n. 21), pp. 229-268;
  • 64
    • 35548937292 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Fridolf Kudlien, Galen's Religious Belief, in Galen, ed. Nutton (cit. n. 3), pp. 117-130.
    • and Fridolf Kudlien, "Galen's Religious Belief," in Galen, ed. Nutton (cit. n. 3), pp. 117-130.
  • 65
    • 35548965503 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Galen, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body, trans. May (cit. n. 22), p. 10f.;
    • See also Galen, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body, trans. May (cit. n. 22), p. 10f.;
  • 66
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    • Galen and the Best of All Possible Worlds
    • R. J. Hankinson, "Galen and the Best of All Possible Worlds," Classical Quarterly, 1989, 39:206-227;
    • (1989) Classical Quarterly , vol.39 , pp. 206-227
    • Hankinson, R.J.1
  • 67
    • 84909092391 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and (albeit briefly) Vivian Nutton, Ancient Medicine (New York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 234-235.
    • and (albeit briefly) Vivian Nutton, Ancient Medicine (New York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 234-235.
  • 68
    • 0027354931 scopus 로고
    • Les problèmes de la création chez Galien
    • ed. J. Kollesch and D. Nickel Stuttgart: Steiner
    • Jackie Pigeaud, "Les problèmes de la création chez Galien," in Galen und das hellenistische Erbe, ed. J. Kollesch and D. Nickel (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1993), pp. 87-103,
    • (1993) Galen und das hellenistische Erbe , pp. 87-103
    • Pigeaud, J.1
  • 69
    • 35549009692 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • is tangentially useful. On divine providence with respect to vision in particular see De usu partium 10;
    • is tangentially useful. On divine providence with respect to vision in particular see De usu partium 10;
  • 70
    • 35548971934 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.13f.
    • and De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.13f.
  • 71
    • 35548981673 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In using the word constitution, I want to underscore Galen's emphasis on the combination of the physical makeup of an organ, its particular balance of the elements, its geometrical shape, and the arrangement of its parts (cf. De usu partium 1.9).
    • In using the word "constitution," I want to underscore Galen's emphasis on the combination of the physical makeup of an organ, its particular balance of the elements, its geometrical shape, and the arrangement of its parts (cf. De usu partium 1.9).
  • 72
    • 33644871051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Levels of Explanation in Galen
    • On the complex relationships between Galen's teleology and his materialism see
    • On the complex relationships between Galen's teleology and his materialism see P. N. Singer, "Levels of Explanation in Galen," Cl. Quart., 1997, 47:525-542;
    • (1997) Cl. Quart , vol.47 , pp. 525-542
    • Singer, P.N.1
  • 73
    • 35549003981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Hankinson, Galen and the Best of AU Possible Worlds (cit. n. 25). In many ways, the questions raised by this issue are profoundly relevant to any reading of De usu partium in particular, where Galen is very explicitly running between a hands-on detailed anatomical study, a teleological paean to a benign and wise creator, and, from, time to time, a physical (elemental) explanation of the composition of organs and parts.
    • and Hankinson, "Galen and the Best of AU Possible Worlds" (cit. n. 25). In many ways, the questions raised by this issue are profoundly relevant to any reading of De usu partium in particular, where Galen is very explicitly running between a hands-on detailed anatomical study, a teleological paean to a benign and wise creator, and, from, time to time, a physical (elemental) explanation of the composition of organs and parts.
  • 74
    • 35548998250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The exact details of the precise role oipneuma are not always as clear as we might like, however.
    • The exact details of the precise role oipneuma are not always as clear as we might like, however.
  • 75
    • 33746781952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, Leiden: Brill
    • See Julius Rocca, Galen on the Brain (Leiden: Brill, 2003), p. 66;
    • (2003) Galen on the Brain , pp. 66
    • Rocca, J.1
  • 77
    • 0042304319 scopus 로고
    • Berkeley: Univ. California Press
    • G. E. R. Lloyd, Revolutions of Wisdom (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1987), p. 213;
    • (1987) Revolutions of Wisdom , pp. 213
    • Lloyd, G.E.R.1
  • 78
    • 35549008442 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Von Staden, Body, Soul, and Nerves (cit. n. 6).
    • and Von Staden, "Body, Soul, and Nerves" (cit. n. 6).
  • 79
    • 35548974255 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De usu partium 8.6.
    • De usu partium 8.6.
  • 80
    • 35549005760 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • He has something like this clearly in mind when he points out that alterations in atmospheric air, which is a continuum, should happen, in an instant, De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.7.
    • He has something like this clearly in mind when he points out that alterations in atmospheric air, which is a continuum, should happen, in an instant, De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.7.
  • 81
    • 35548956825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.5, 7.5.32, 7.4.18.
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.5, 7.5.32, 7.4.18.
  • 82
    • 35548962688 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.4.1, 7.7.20.
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.4.1, 7.7.20.
  • 83
    • 35548934569 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the Chrysippean models see Stoicorum veterum fragmenta 2.232f.
    • For the Chrysippean models see Stoicorum veterum fragmenta 2.232f.
  • 84
    • 35548952614 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Opt. 2.7
    • Opt. 2.7.
  • 85
    • 35548969271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • I borrow the translation corporeity from Smith, Ptolemy's Theory of Visual, Perception (cit. n. 6), p. 71 n 1;
    • I borrow the translation "corporeity" from Smith, Ptolemy's Theory of Visual, Perception (cit. n. 6), p. 71 n 1;
  • 86
    • 35548960852 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • he clarifies thus: I have rendered corpus as 'corporeity' to indicate that it is not so much body as the fact that something is a body that is apprehended by sight. Aristotle's view that the proper sensible of sight is color appears at De anima 418all-14.
    • he clarifies thus: "I have rendered corpus as 'corporeity' to indicate that it is not so much body as the fact that something is a body that is apprehended by sight." Aristotle's view that the proper sensible of sight is color appears at De anima 418all-14.
  • 87
    • 33751211554 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Laws of Nature and Natural Laws
    • for my argument. See
    • See Daryn Lehoux, "Laws of Nature and Natural Laws," Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 2006, 37:527-549, for my argument.
    • (2006) Studies in History and Philosophy of Science , vol.37 , pp. 527-549
    • Lehoux, D.1
  • 88
    • 35549003110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith, Psychology of Visual Perception in Ptolemy's Optics (cit. n. 11), p. 200f., has argued for a considerable borrowing of particular details of Ptolemy's analysis from Aristotle, but-as in the case of Smith's views on Stoic influence-I want to be more cautious.
    • Smith, "Psychology of Visual Perception in Ptolemy's Optics" (cit. n. 11), p. 200f., has argued for a considerable borrowing of particular details of Ptolemy's analysis from Aristotle, but-as in the case of Smith's views on Stoic influence-I want to be more cautious.
  • 89
    • 35548956350 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Opt. 2.16, 2.18 (ex diuersitatibus quidem quantitatis uidetur res magis, quando plus incidit super earn, claritas uisus, aut quando lumen plus cadit super earn).
    • Opt. 2.16, 2.18 ("ex diuersitatibus quidem quantitatis uidetur res magis, quando plus incidit super earn, claritas uisus, aut quando lumen plus cadit super earn").
  • 90
    • 35548949760 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Opt. 2.23 (quotation), 2.63.
    • Opt. 2.23 (quotation), 2.63.
  • 92
    • 35548994481 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (hereafter abbreviated as Crit.) 10.3, 11.1;
    • (hereafter abbreviated as Crit.) 10.3, 11.1;
  • 93
    • 35549000921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Opt. 2.23
    • and Opt. 2.23.
  • 94
    • 35548940669 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De usu partium 8.6;
    • De usu partium 8.6;
  • 95
    • 35548963737 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.6.10. Shakes hands with is an admittedly imperfect rendering of a very difficult sense to translate. The adjective by itself means well known, familiar.
    • and De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.6.10. "Shakes hands with" is an admittedly imperfect rendering of a very difficult sense to translate. The adjective by itself means "well known," "familiar."
  • 96
    • 35548994904 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.42-44. Taste may appear to be a slight exception here, where its has to do with receptivity to certain properties of its objects rather than to the objects themselves; so, instead of being food-like, it is said to be moist and sponge-like. This is elaborated on a little later (7.6.22), where Galen explains that the objects of taste are moist, from which we can see that the moistness of the organ of taste is again in a like-to-like correspondence with its objects.
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.42-44. Taste may appear to be a slight exception here, where its has to do with receptivity to certain properties of its objects rather than to the objects themselves; so, instead of being "food-like," it is said to be moist and "sponge-like". This is elaborated on a little later (7.6.22), where Galen explains that the objects of taste are moist, from which we can see that the moistness of the organ of taste is again in a like-to-like correspondence with its objects.
  • 97
    • 35548994036 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.13.
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.13.
  • 99
    • 35549005331 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Among the Greek words that Cicero renders as genus in his translation of Plato's Timaeus is the Greek (Cie. Tim. 21 = Pl. Tim. 35a).
    • Among the Greek words that Cicero renders as "genus" in his translation of Plato's Timaeus is the Greek (Cie. Tim. 21 = Pl. Tim. 35a).
  • 100
    • 35548965502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pyrrhonism is the stronger of the two ancient varieties of Scepticism, the other being Academic Scepticism the school to which Cicero and Plutarch subscribed, which, although worried about the reliability of the senses, did not take it as proven that they told us nothing about the world
    • Pyrrhonism is the stronger of the two ancient varieties of Scepticism, the other being Academic Scepticism (the school to which Cicero and Plutarch subscribed), which, although worried about the reliability of the senses, did not take it as proven that they told us nothing about the world.
  • 101
    • 35549009276 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g., Pyrrhoniae hypotyposes 3.38f., 1.35f. The word for apprehensible Sextus uses is, graspable, which is a technical term, in Hellenistic epistemology that is often used to refer to perception but also included cognitive grasping (perhaps in a similar way to how the English I see also means I understand).
    • See e.g., Pyrrhoniae hypotyposes 3.38f., 1.35f. The word for "apprehensible" Sextus uses is, "graspable," which is a technical term, in Hellenistic epistemology that is often used to refer to perception but also included cognitive "grasping" (perhaps in a similar way to how the English "I see" also means "I understand").
  • 102
    • 35548936840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The modes are collected and discussed most fully in Julia Annas and Jonathan Barnes, The Modes of Scepticism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).
    • The "modes" are collected and discussed most fully in Julia Annas and Jonathan Barnes, The Modes of Scepticism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985).
  • 103
    • 35548962234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the centrality of the criterion in Hellenistic epistemology, and its relation to debates between dogmatic schools and Sceptics, see Long, Ptolemy (cit. n. 5).
    • For the centrality of the criterion in Hellenistic epistemology, and its relation to debates between dogmatic schools and Sceptics, see Long, "Ptolemy" (cit. n. 5).
  • 104
    • 35548977507 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Long, Ptolemy, notes that some of Ptolemy's categories are shared by another of the second century's great intellects, Sextus Empiricus-specifically, the middle three categories of instrument, agent, and means (although Sextus may be using category [4], means, with a slightly different emphasis than Ptolemy does). Long sees the two accounts as virtually identical, but Sextus's use of the application of sense impressions, in slot (4), where Ptolemy talks of dialectic as the means by which the intellect judges, is more clearly rooted in a particular set of debates centered on Stoicism. There are family resemblances between the two accounts, but it is difficult to see how exactly to map Sextus's version onto Ptolemy's very precisely.
    • Long, "Ptolemy," notes that some of Ptolemy's categories are shared by another of the second century's great intellects, Sextus Empiricus-specifically, the middle three categories of instrument, agent, and means (although Sextus may be using category [4], means, with a slightly different emphasis than Ptolemy does). Long sees the two accounts as virtually identical, but Sextus's use of the application of sense impressions, in slot (4), where Ptolemy talks of dialectic as the means by which the intellect judges, is more clearly rooted in a particular set of debates centered on Stoicism. There are family resemblances between the two accounts, but it is difficult to see how exactly to map Sextus's version onto Ptolemy's very precisely.
  • 105
    • 35548974680 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Recall that Galen had also used a metaphor from proportion theory to compare the relationship between the brain and psychic pneuma to that between the eye and worldly pneuma: De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.32. Although similar in kind to Ptolemy's analogy, it differs insofar as it breaks down Ptolemy's categories 1-3 differently, inserting two intermediary objects between 1 and 3, and Galen does not reify their relationship in the same way as Ptolemy does
    • Recall that Galen had also used a metaphor from proportion theory to compare the relationship between the brain and psychic pneuma to that between the eye and worldly pneuma: De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 7.5.32. Although similar in kind to Ptolemy's analogy, it differs insofar as it breaks down Ptolemy's categories 1-3 differently, inserting two intermediary objects between 1 and 3, and Galen does not reify their relationship in the same way as Ptolemy does.
  • 106
    • 35549003983 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Opt. 2.22
    • Opt. 2.22.
  • 107
    • 35548937291 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crit. 8, 2.4
    • Crit. 8, 2.4.
  • 108
    • 35548971103 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the Stoic understanding of phantasia see Anthony Long, Stoic Psychology, in The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, ed. Keimpe Algra et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 560-584, on pp. 572-580.
    • On the Stoic understanding of phantasia see Anthony Long, "Stoic Psychology," in The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy, ed. Keimpe Algra et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999), pp. 560-584, on pp. 572-580.
  • 109
    • 35549011840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Long uses impression as his translation of phantasia produced by sensation but does in other contexts offer representation as another translation, which could be seen as conflicting with my nonrepresentational reading of Ptolemy if it could be shown that Ptolemy is using phantasia in a strictly Stoic sense. Unfortunately, phantasia itself is a common term, in Hellenistic accounts of perception, and Ptolemy's use of it is gray enough not to allow us to decide to what extent he may be committing to a Stoic view in particular here. Finally, I am not certain that phantasia as a blanket term in Stoicism for something like the objects of thought would be precluded from sometimes being representational (as in memory) and sometimes being nonrepresentational as in perception
    • Long uses "impression" as his translation of "phantasia" produced by sensation but does in other contexts offer "representation" as another translation, which could be seen as conflicting with my nonrepresentational reading of Ptolemy if it could be shown that Ptolemy is using "phantasia" in a strictly Stoic sense. Unfortunately, "phantasia" itself is a common term, in Hellenistic accounts of perception, and Ptolemy's use of it is gray enough not to allow us to decide to what extent he may be committing to a Stoic view in particular here. Finally, I am not certain that "phantasia" as a blanket term in Stoicism for something like "the objects of thought" would be precluded from sometimes being representational (as in memory) and sometimes being nonrepresentational (as in perception).
  • 110
    • 35548979419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crit. 9.6 (on the infallibility of the criterion forjudging), 11;
    • Crit. 9.6 (on the infallibility of the criterion forjudging), 11;
  • 111
    • 35548999108 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Opt. 2.84f., 2.126f.
    • and Opt. 2.84f., 2.126f.
  • 112
    • 35548999578 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As Smith has remarked, it would be fair to say that Ptolemy's ulterior purpose in the Optics as a whole is to correct such misjudgments by explaining them, away:
    • As Smith has remarked, "it would be fair to say that Ptolemy's ulterior purpose in the Optics as a whole is to correct such misjudgments by explaining them, away":
  • 113
    • 35549008443 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Smith., Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics (cit. n. 9), p. 40.
    • Smith., Ptolemy and the Foundations of Ancient Mathematical Optics (cit. n. 9), p. 40.
  • 114
    • 35548955470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • There is a lovely ambiguity in this regard at Opt. 2.83: we should draw distinctions between illusions . . . in order that we can solve doubts that come up in investigations de scientia opticorum. Does this mean that we can solve doubts that come up in investigations concerning the science of optics or that we can solve doubts that come up in investigations by means of the science of optics?
    • There is a lovely ambiguity in this regard at Opt. 2.83: "we should draw distinctions between illusions . . . in order that we can solve doubts that come up in investigations de scientia opticorum." Does this mean that we can solve doubts that come up in investigations concerning the science of optics or that we can solve doubts that come up in investigations by means of the science of optics?
  • 115
    • 35548985735 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crit. 10.5-6;
    • Crit. 10.5-6;
  • 116
    • 35548968352 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Opt. 2.73
    • and Opt. 2.73.
  • 117
    • 35548940251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The precise correspondence between pneuma and consciousness is left open in Galen. Nevertheless, it is clear that consciousness depends on pneuma and intelligence on the quality of the pneuma: De usu partium 7.13.
    • The precise correspondence between pneuma and consciousness is left open in Galen. Nevertheless, it is clear that consciousness depends on pneuma and intelligence on the quality of the pneuma: De usu partium 7.13.
  • 119
    • 35549003546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ptolemy is explicit that judgment, insofar as it uses language, is representational, but sense perception itself is causal
    • Ptolemy is explicit that judgment, insofar as it uses language, is representational, but sense perception itself is causal.
  • 120
    • 35548945290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For accounts of this position see, e.g., P. F. Strawson, Perception and Its Objects, in Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, with His Replies, ed. G. F. Macdonald (Ithaca, N. Y: Cornell Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 4.1-60;
    • For accounts of this position see, e.g., P. F. Strawson, "Perception and Its Objects," in Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, with His Replies, ed. G. F. Macdonald (Ithaca, N. Y: Cornell Univ. Press, 1979), pp. 4.1-60;
  • 121
    • 35548984855 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Putnam, Threefold Cord (cit. n. 7), although why Putnam claims that a causal account of perception should be wholly incompatible with, what he calls natural realism is opaque to me, unless it rests on his (unwarranted) assumption that causal theories are sense-data theories (pp. 12, 22)-
    • and Putnam, Threefold Cord (cit. n. 7), although why Putnam claims that a causal account of perception should be "wholly incompatible" with, what he calls natural realism is opaque to me, unless it rests on his (unwarranted) assumption that causal theories are sense-data theories (pp. 12, 22)-
  • 122
    • 35548965957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • here contrast Fred Dretske, Perception, in Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, ed. Robert Audi (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995), p. 657.
    • here contrast Fred Dretske, "Perception," in Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, ed. Robert Audi (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995), p. 657.
  • 123
    • 35548995785 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In a different tradition, but making at least sympathetic points, see James J. Gibson, The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1966
    • In a different tradition, but making at least sympathetic points, see James J. Gibson, The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1966).
  • 124
    • 35548936013 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Crit. 9.2. We can also experience when we are not thinking
    • Crit. 9.2. We can also experience when we are not thinking.
  • 125
    • 35548976583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 2.1.1.
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 2.1.1.
  • 126
    • 35548932400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • To be fair, it is not our scientific method, but it can be argued that it is a scientific method. For the translation. see Phillip de Lacy in Galen, De plac. Hipp, et Plat.;
    • To be fair, it is not our scientific method, but it can be argued that it is a scientific method. For the translation. see Phillip de Lacy in Galen, De plac. Hipp, et Plat.;
  • 128
    • 35548970659 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 2.3.8.
    • De plac. Hipp, et Plat. 2.3.8.
  • 129
    • 35548933227 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Galen, Prognosis 98.5.
    • Galen, Prognosis 98.5.


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.