French anthropology and the Durkheimians in Colonial Indochina

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 581-622

  Bayly, Susan ^a  

^a CHRIST S COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 3543071450     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0026749x00003954     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. This is part of a larger interdisciplinary project on the French empire, focusing on the intellectual dimensions of colonial experience in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. I am grateful to Christ's College, Cambridge for grants in support of research visits to Vietnam and the Centre des Archives d'Outre-Mer, Aix-en-Provence. For illuminating comments and criticisms, I am indebted to Sugata Bose, James Laidlaw, Paul Readman, Alan Macfarlane and Leila Fawaz.
2. Here I follow the lead of such works as Nicholas Thomas, Colonialism's Culture. Anthropology, Travel and Government (Cambridge, 1994).
3. At the turn of the century, the Durkheim school was broadly associated with the Dreyfusard republican left. Durkhcimians played a major role in both metropolitan and colonial intellectual life from the 1890s until the Second World War. See Philippe Besnard (ed.), The Sociological Domain. The Durkheimians and the Founding of French Sociology (Cambridge and Paris, 1983); A. Giddens, Durkheim (London, 1978); K. Wolff (ed.), Emile Durkheim: 1858-1817 (New York, 1979).
4. At the turn of the century, the Durkheim school was broadly associated with the Dreyfusard republican left. Durkhcimians played a major role in both metropolitan and colonial intellectual life from the 1890s until the Second World War. See Philippe Besnard (ed.), The Sociological Domain. The Durkheimians and the Founding of French Sociology (Cambridge and Paris, 1983); A. Giddens, Durkheim (London, 1978); K. Wolff (ed.), Emile Durkheim: 1858-1817 (New York, 1979).
5. At the turn of the century, the Durkheim school was broadly associated with the Dreyfusard republican left. Durkhcimians played a major role in both metropolitan and colonial intellectual life from the 1890s until the Second World War. See Philippe Besnard (ed.), The Sociological Domain. The Durkheimians and the Founding of French Sociology (Cambridge and Paris, 1983); A. Giddens, Durkheim (London, 1978); K. Wolff (ed.), Emile Durkheim: 1858-1817 (New York, 1979).
6. The EFEO originated as France's archaeological mission in Asia, the Mission Archéologique d'Indochine. Reconstituted in 1898, the EFEO's rapid growth reflected the heightened sense of national competition which nourished European orientalist initiatives from the 1890s until well after the First World War. Its counterpart in the French-ruled Mediterranean was the Mission Scientifique en Maroc which published the Revue du Monde Musulman (hereafter RMM); this too was a body with an explicitly Durkheimian research ethos. See Edmund Burke III, 'The first crisis of orientalism' in Jean-Claude Vatin et al., Connaissances du Maghreb. Sciences sociales et colonisation (Paris, 1984), pp. 213-26.
7. The EFEO originated as France's archaeological mission in Asia, the Mission Archéologique d'Indochine. Reconstituted in 1898, the EFEO's rapid growth reflected the heightened sense of national competition which nourished European orientalist initiatives from the 1890s until well after the First World War. Its counterpart in the French-ruled Mediterranean was the Mission Scientifique en Maroc which published the Revue du Monde Musulman (hereafter RMM); this too was a body with an explicitly Durkheimian research ethos. See Edmund Burke III, 'The first crisis of orientalism' in Jean-Claude Vatin et al., Connaissances du Maghreb. Sciences sociales et colonisation (Paris, 1984), pp. 213-26.
8. On the liberal writings of RMM contributors on Islamic modernism, see Burke 'The first crisis of orientalism', and S. Bayly 'Racial readings of empire: Britain, France and colonial modernity in the Mediterranean and Asia', to appear in a forthcoming volume on colonialism and modernity edited by L. Fawaz (Columbia University Press). For a penetrating account of Vietnamese intellectual life in the preIndependence period see David G. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981).
9. On the liberal writings of RMM contributors on Islamic modernism, see Burke 'The first crisis of orientalism', and S. Bayly 'Racial readings of empire: Britain, France and colonial modernity in the Mediterranean and Asia', to appear in a forthcoming volume on colonialism and modernity edited by L. Fawaz (Columbia University Press). For a penetrating account of Vietnamese intellectual life in the preIndependence period see David G. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981).
10. On the liberal writings of RMM contributors on Islamic modernism, see Burke 'The first crisis of orientalism', and S. Bayly 'Racial readings of empire: Britain, France and colonial modernity in the Mediterranean and Asia', to appear in a forthcoming volume on colonialism and modernity edited by L. Fawaz (Columbia University Press). For a penetrating account of Vietnamese intellectual life in the preIndependence period see David G. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981).
11. For comparable developments in colonial Africa and the Pacific, see e.g. A. J. Ballantyne, 'Comparative ethnologies. India and New Zealand in the nineteenth century' (unpub. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1999); and S. Bayly, Caste, Politics and Society in Indiafrom the Eighteenth Century to the Modem Age (Cambridge, 1999).
12. For comparable developments in colonial Africa and the Pacific, see e.g. A. J. Ballantyne, 'Comparative ethnologies. India and New Zealand in the nineteenth century' (unpub. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, 1999); and S. Bayly, Caste, Politics and Society in Indiafrom the Eighteenth Century to the Modem Age (Cambridge, 1999).
13. See, however, William Crooke, A Glossary of North Indian Peasant Life (first published 1879). In his introduction to the 1989 reprint of this work, Shahid Amin criticizes Crooke's compilation for systematically excluding words which indicated knowledge of the modern in everyday peasant speech.
14. Evans-Pritchard's study portrays the north African segmentary political order as a form of polity with the inherent capacity to reformulate itself through a process of replication out of which came a centralized counterpart of the Western nation state.
15. The theme of revolutionary transformation is still alive in present-day French social science. Henri Mendras's influential study of France's massive social transformations since the Second World War was published in France as La seconde révolution française (Paris, 1988); the English translation bears the tepid title Social Change in Modern France. Towards a Cultural Anthropology of the Fifth Republic (Cambridge, 1991).
16. The theme of revolutionary transformation is still alive in present-day French social science. Henri Mendras's influential study of France's massive social transformations since the Second World War was published in France as La seconde révolution française (Paris, 1988); the English translation bears the tepid title Social Change in Modern France. Towards a Cultural Anthropology of the Fifth Republic (Cambridge, 1991).
17. The concept of terroir - denoting the composite of distinctive essences and qualities which characterized one's native soil and thus shaped both human personality and the wine, crops, landscape and other unique products and environmental features of a given regional milieu - nourished both conservative and leftist theorizing about the rural roots of French nationhood. See Herman Lebovics, True France. The Wars over Cultural Identity 1900-1945 (Ithaca and London, 1992). On the antihistorical bent in British social anthropology, see Nicholas Thomas, Out of Time. History and Evolution in Anthropological Discourse (Cambridge, 1989).
18. The concept of terroir - denoting the composite of distinctive essences and qualities which characterized one's native soil and thus shaped both human personality and the wine, crops, landscape and other unique products and environmental features of a given regional milieu - nourished both conservative and leftist theorizing about the rural roots of French nationhood. See Herman Lebovics, True France. The Wars over Cultural Identity 1900-1945 (Ithaca and London, 1992). On the antihistorical bent in British social anthropology, see Nicholas Thomas, Out of Time. History and Evolution in Anthropological Discourse (Cambridge, 1989).
19. See e.g. Ronald Inden, Imagining India (Oxford, 1990).
20. Comparable to the encyclopaedic race, tribe and (for India) caste surveys in British-ruled Asian societies are such works as J. Harmand, 'Les races indochinoises' Mémoires de la société d'anthropologie de Paris, 2d series ii:1882, pp. 314-68.
21. The region's present-day Cham population is predominantly poor and rural. Since Vietnamese Unification in 1975, the Cham have been classed as one of some 60 'national minorities' whose supposedly backward lifestyles are held to be out of step with official goals of modernization and unitary incorporative nationalism.
22. George Coedès was a key contributor to long-running debate about whether the Cham were major participants in the Indian Ocean spice trade. For early accounts of the Cham (also known to French orientalists as Tsiam, Tjam, Cam and Ciam), see e.g. Abbé C. Bouillevaux, 'Le Ciampa' in Annales de l'Extrême Orient ii:321 and iii:77, 99, 303 1879-81 . See also reviews by E. Hamy in Revue d'Ethnographie I:1882, pp. 344-6.
23. George Coedès was a key contributor to long-running debate about whether the Cham were major participants in the Indian Ocean spice trade. For early accounts of the Cham (also known to French orientalists as Tsiam, Tjam, Cam and Ciam), see e.g. Abbé C. Bouillevaux, 'Le Ciampa' in Annales de l'Extrême Orient ii:321 and iii:77, 99, 303 1879-81 . See also reviews by E. Hamy in Revue d'Ethnographie I:1882, pp. 344-6.
24. George Coedès was a key contributor to long-running debate about whether the Cham were major participants in the Indian Ocean spice trade. For early accounts of the Cham (also known to French orientalists as Tsiam, Tjam, Cam and Ciam), see e.g. Abbé C. Bouillevaux, 'Le Ciampa' in Annales de l'Extrême Orient ii:321 and iii:77, 99, 303 1879-81 . See also reviews by E. Hamy in Revue d'Ethnographie I:1882, pp. 344-6.
25. A. Bergaigne, 'L'ancien régime du Champa', Journal Asiatique, Jan. 1888.
26. Henri Parmentier, Inventaire descriptif des monuments cams de l'Annam (Paris, 1909-18). Another major study, George Maspero's Le royaume de Champa (Paris and Brussels, 1928) reflects the interest of prewar French orientalists in the phenomenon of sacred kingship in the so-called Indic world, thus linking Champa scholarship with the concerns of both pre- and post-war theorists of the Indian caste system.
27. Henri Parmentier, Inventaire descriptif des monuments cams de l'Annam (Paris, 1909-18). Another major study, George Maspero's Le royaume de Champa (Paris and Brussels, 1928) reflects the interest of prewar French orientalists in the phenomenon of sacred kingship in the so-called Indic world, thus linking Champa scholarship with the concerns of both pre- and post-war theorists of the Indian caste system.
28. Truong Vinh Ky, a missionary-educated Catholic convert (also known as JeanBaptiste or Petrus Ky), held a variety of posts under both the French and Vietnam's Nguyen emperors. His career invites comparison with those of colonial India's linguistic revivalists: his writings include Vietnamese-language dictionaries, grammars and verse collections, as well as treatises on 'Annamite' traditional culture. See A. Brebion and A. Cabaton (eds), Dictionnaire de bio-bibliographie générale, ancienne et modern de l'Indochine Française (Paris, 1935), pp. 416-17; Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, p. 145; and E. Aymonier, 'Les Tchames et leurs religions', p. 189 in Rerue de l'histoire des religions 24:1891, pp. 187-237 and 24:1891 pp. 261-315.
29. Truong Vinh Ky, a missionary-educated Catholic convert (also known as JeanBaptiste or Petrus Ky), held a variety of posts under both the French and Vietnam's Nguyen emperors. His career invites comparison with those of colonial India's linguistic revivalists: his writings include Vietnamese-language dictionaries, grammars and verse collections, as well as treatises on 'Annamite' traditional culture. See A. Brebion and A. Cabaton (eds), Dictionnaire de bio-bibliographie générale, ancienne et modern de l'Indochine Française (Paris, 1935), pp. 416-17; Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, p. 145; and E. Aymonier, 'Les Tchames et leurs religions', p. 189 in Rerue de l'histoire des religions 24:1891, pp. 187-237 and 24:1891 pp. 261-315.
30. Truong Vinh Ky, a missionary-educated Catholic convert (also known as JeanBaptiste or Petrus Ky), held a variety of posts under both the French and Vietnam's Nguyen emperors. His career invites comparison with those of colonial India's linguistic revivalists: his writings include Vietnamese-language dictionaries, grammars and verse collections, as well as treatises on 'Annamite' traditional culture. See A. Brebion and A. Cabaton (eds), Dictionnaire de bio-bibliographie générale, ancienne et modern de l'Indochine Française (Paris, 1935), pp. 416-17; Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, p. 145; and E. Aymonier, 'Les Tchames et leurs religions', p. 189 in Rerue de l'histoire des religions 24:1891, pp. 187-237 and 24:1891 pp. 261-315.
31. Truong Vinh Ky, a missionary-educated Catholic convert (also known as JeanBaptiste or Petrus Ky), held a variety of posts under both the French and Vietnam's Nguyen emperors. His career invites comparison with those of colonial India's linguistic revivalists: his writings include Vietnamese-language dictionaries, grammars and verse collections, as well as treatises on 'Annamite' traditional culture. See A. Brebion and A. Cabaton (eds), Dictionnaire de bio-bibliographie générale, ancienne et modern de l'Indochine Française (Paris, 1935), pp. 416-17; Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, p. 145; and E. Aymonier, 'Les Tchames et leurs religions', p. 189 in Rerue de l'histoire des religions 24:1891, pp. 187-237 and 24:1891 pp. 261-315.
32. Truong Vinh Ky, a missionary-educated Catholic convert (also known as JeanBaptiste or Petrus Ky), held a variety of posts under both the French and Vietnam's Nguyen emperors. His career invites comparison with those of colonial India's linguistic revivalists: his writings include Vietnamese-language dictionaries, grammars and verse collections, as well as treatises on 'Annamite' traditional culture. See A. Brebion and A. Cabaton (eds), Dictionnaire de bio-bibliographie générale, ancienne et modern de l'Indochine Française (Paris, 1935), pp. 416-17; Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, p. 145; and E. Aymonier, 'Les Tchames et leurs religions', p. 189 in Rerue de l'histoire des religions 24:1891, pp. 187-237 and 24:1891 pp. 261-315.
33. E.g. in Journal Asiatique and Revue d'Ethnographie (hereafter RE) edited by E. Hamy. (In this period, ethnographie meant the compilation of untheorized data on such things as the languages, artefacts and physical comportment of so-called primitives.) See e.g. A. Aymonier, 'Les Chams', RE: 1885, 156-60, and C. Lemire, 'Les tours Kiams de la province de Binh-Dinh', RE 6:1887, 383-94. See also G. Coedès, 'Etudes Indochinoises', pp. 448-50, Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, ns 26,4 pp. 437-62; Po Dharma, Le Panduranga (Campa) 1802-1835. Ses repports avec le Vietnam (Paris, 1987).
34. E.g. in Journal Asiatique and Revue d'Ethnographie (hereafter RE) edited by E. Hamy. (In this period, ethnographie meant the compilation of untheorized data on such things as the languages, artefacts and physical comportment of so-called primitives.) See e.g. A. Aymonier, 'Les Chams', RE: 1885, 156-60, and C. Lemire, 'Les tours Kiams de la province de Binh-Dinh', RE 6:1887, 383-94. See also G. Coedès, 'Etudes Indochinoises', pp. 448-50, Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, ns 26,4 pp. 437-62; Po Dharma, Le Panduranga (Campa) 1802-1835. Ses repports avec le Vietnam (Paris, 1987).
35. E.g. in Journal Asiatique and Revue d'Ethnographie (hereafter RE) edited by E. Hamy. (In this period, ethnographie meant the compilation of untheorized data on such things as the languages, artefacts and physical comportment of so-called primitives.) See e.g. A. Aymonier, 'Les Chams', RE: 1885, 156-60, and C. Lemire, 'Les tours Kiams de la province de Binh-Dinh', RE 6:1887, 383-94. See also G. Coedès, 'Etudes Indochinoises', pp. 448-50, Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, ns 26,4 pp. 437-62; Po Dharma, Le Panduranga (Campa) 1802-1835. Ses repports avec le Vietnam (Paris, 1987).
36. E.g. in Journal Asiatique and Revue d'Ethnographie (hereafter RE) edited by E. Hamy. (In this period, ethnographie meant the compilation of untheorized data on such things as the languages, artefacts and physical comportment of so-called primitives.) See e.g. A. Aymonier, 'Les Chams', RE: 1885, 156-60, and C. Lemire, 'Les tours Kiams de la province de Binh-Dinh', RE 6:1887, 383-94. See also G. Coedès, 'Etudes Indochinoises', pp. 448-50, Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, ns 26,4 pp. 437-62; Po Dharma, Le Panduranga (Campa) 1802-1835. Ses repports avec le Vietnam (Paris, 1987).
37. E.g. in Journal Asiatique and Revue d'Ethnographie (hereafter RE) edited by E. Hamy. (In this period, ethnographie meant the compilation of untheorized data on such things as the languages, artefacts and physical comportment of so-called primitives.) See e.g. A. Aymonier, 'Les Chams', RE: 1885, 156-60, and C. Lemire, 'Les tours Kiams de la province de Binh-Dinh', RE 6:1887, 383-94. See also G. Coedès, 'Etudes Indochinoises', pp. 448-50, Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, ns 26,4 pp. 437-62; Po Dharma, Le Panduranga (Campa) 1802-1835. Ses repports avec le Vietnam (Paris, 1987).
38. E.g. in Journal Asiatique and Revue d'Ethnographie (hereafter RE) edited by E. Hamy. (In this period, ethnographie meant the compilation of untheorized data on such things as the languages, artefacts and physical comportment of so-called primitives.) See e.g. A. Aymonier, 'Les Chams', RE: 1885, 156-60, and C. Lemire, 'Les tours Kiams de la province de Binh-Dinh', RE 6:1887, 383-94. See also G. Coedès, 'Etudes Indochinoises', pp. 448-50, Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, ns 26,4 pp. 437-62; Po Dharma, Le Panduranga (Campa) 1802-1835. Ses repports avec le Vietnam (Paris, 1987).
39. The discipline of race science was pioneered in France, though it was ardently embraced in Britain and has had an enduring impact in such countries as India, China, Japan and Iran. See Frank Dikötter (ed.), The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London, 1997); S. Bayly, 'Caste and race in colonial ethnography' in Peter Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (Delhi, 1995), pp. 165-218 and S. Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics. On French race science and the activities of such key ethnological institutions as the Société d'anthropologie de Paris, see Lebovics, True France.
40. The discipline of race science was pioneered in France, though it was ardently embraced in Britain and has had an enduring impact in such countries as India, China, Japan and Iran. See Frank Dikötter (ed.), The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London, 1997); S. Bayly, 'Caste and race in colonial ethnography' in Peter Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (Delhi, 1995), pp. 165-218 and S. Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics. On French race science and the activities of such key ethnological institutions as the Société d'anthropologie de Paris, see Lebovics, True France.
41. The discipline of race science was pioneered in France, though it was ardently embraced in Britain and has had an enduring impact in such countries as India, China, Japan and Iran. See Frank Dikötter (ed.), The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London, 1997); S. Bayly, 'Caste and race in colonial ethnography' in Peter Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (Delhi, 1995), pp. 165-218 and S. Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics. On French race science and the activities of such key ethnological institutions as the Société d'anthropologie de Paris, see Lebovics, True France.
42. The discipline of race science was pioneered in France, though it was ardently embraced in Britain and has had an enduring impact in such countries as India, China, Japan and Iran. See Frank Dikötter (ed.), The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London, 1997); S. Bayly, 'Caste and race in colonial ethnography' in Peter Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (Delhi, 1995), pp. 165-218 and S. Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics. On French race science and the activities of such key ethnological institutions as the Société d'anthropologie de Paris, see Lebovics, True France.
43. The discipline of race science was pioneered in France, though it was ardently embraced in Britain and has had an enduring impact in such countries as India, China, Japan and Iran. See Frank Dikötter (ed.), The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London, 1997); S. Bayly, 'Caste and race in colonial ethnography' in Peter Robb (ed.), The Concept of Race in South Asia (Delhi, 1995), pp. 165-218 and S. Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics. On French race science and the activities of such key ethnological institutions as the Société d'anthropologie de Paris, see Lebovics, True France.
44. On Fernand Braudel's intellectual debt to the theories of culture and environment formulated by the cultural geographer Vidai de la Blache, see Peter Burke, The French Historical Revolution. The Annales School (London, 1986), p. 37. This tradition also fed into the pioneering work of Pierre Gourou on the Indochinese peasant milieu, and is still alive today in the Braudelian mandate underpinning major research institutions such as the Maison Méditerranéenne des Sciences de l'Homme, established in 1997 at Aix-en-Provence by France's leading scientific funding body, the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS).
45. The orientalist Georges Maspero was a believer in the 'spiritual' character of French colonialism and praised the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore for his comments on the soulless nature of British rule. This Maspero contrasted with France's civilizing genius (génie) which he saw as 'revivifying' the cultures of Indochina. Maspero (ed.), Un empire colonial français. L'Indochine, vol. 1 (Paris, 1929), p. v. See also G. Taboulet, 'De quelques travaux historiques sur l'Indochine', pp. 154-5, Revue d'histoire des colonies 36, 126:1949, pp. 154-91.
46. The orientalist Georges Maspero was a believer in the 'spiritual' character of French colonialism and praised the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore for his comments on the soulless nature of British rule. This Maspero contrasted with France's civilizing genius (génie) which he saw as 'revivifying' the cultures of Indochina. Maspero (ed.), Un empire colonial français. L'Indochine, vol. 1 (Paris, 1929), p. v. See also G. Taboulet, 'De quelques travaux historiques sur l'Indochine', pp. 154-5, Revue d'histoire des colonies 36, 126:1949, pp. 154-91.
47. The orientalist Georges Maspero was a believer in the 'spiritual' character of French colonialism and praised the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore for his comments on the soulless nature of British rule. This Maspero contrasted with France's civilizing genius (génie) which he saw as 'revivifying' the cultures of Indochina. Maspero (ed.), Un empire colonial français. L'Indochine, vol. 1 (Paris, 1929), p. v. See also G. Taboulet, 'De quelques travaux historiques sur l'Indochine', pp. 154-5, Revue d'histoire des colonies 36, 126:1949, pp. 154-91.
48. As can be seen, for example, in such works as the novel Greenmantle by John Buchan (Edinburgh, 1916). See also Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder c. 1848-1918 (Cambridge, 1989). For comparable French writings see e.g. André Servier, La psychologie du Musulman (Paris, 1913).
49. As can be seen, for example, in such works as the novel Greenmantle by John Buchan (Edinburgh, 1916). See also Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder c. 1848-1918 (Cambridge, 1989). For comparable French writings see e.g. André Servier, La psychologie du Musulman (Paris, 1913).
50. Those like the littérateur Louis Bertrand (1866-1941), whose fin-de-siècle writings called for the 'rebarbarization' of France through an infusion of 'healthy' colon blood, saw the white settlers as a special breed of incomers whose physical and moral strengths derived from the fact that so many of them came from Mediterranean lands, i.e. Italy, Spain and Malta as well as France itself. Patricia Lorcin, Imperial Identities. Stereotyping and Race in Colonial Algeria (London, New York, 1995), pp. 196-213.
51. As seen in the work of René Maunier and Paul Mus, to be discussed below. The Durkheimians' great intellectual rivals, the Le Playists, were followers of the ultra-conservative sociological school founded by the far-right Catholic nationalist Frederic Le Play (1806-82). See Lebovics, True France, pp. 20-3.
52. Maunier, 'La société Kabyle', pp 55-6 in Maunier, Mélanges de sociologie Nordafricaine (Paris, 1930), pp. 54-87. Maunier was a contributor to the key Durkheimian journal Année Sociologie. His study of house-building practices and the division of labour in Algeria's Berber-speaking Kabyle region, La construction collective de la maison en Kabylie (Paris, 1926), was also a work of sociologie in the tradition of Durkheim and Mauss; it portrayed the norms of Berber life as manifestations of Mediterranean man's supposedly distinctive forms of sociality, as seen in the Kabyle Berbers' characteristic house-building styles and exchange rituals, and in their interactions in what Maunier thought of as the agora- and forum-like open spaces of Kabyle villages. Maunier's writings on the habituations of the Algerian built environment are cited approvingly in Pierre Bourdieu's early works on structuring dispositions and habitus: see Bourdieu's 'The Kabyle house, or the world reversed', first published in 1970; reprinted in his Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique (Paris and Geneva, 1972).
53. Maunier, 'La société Kabyle', pp 55-6 in Maunier, Mélanges de sociologie Nordafricaine (Paris, 1930), pp. 54-87. Maunier was a contributor to the key Durkheimian journal Année Sociologie. His study of house-building practices and the division of labour in Algeria's Berber-speaking Kabyle region, La construction collective de la maison en Kabylie (Paris, 1926), was also a work of sociologie in the tradition of Durkheim and Mauss; it portrayed the norms of Berber life as manifestations of Mediterranean man's supposedly distinctive forms of sociality, as seen in the Kabyle Berbers' characteristic house-building styles and exchange rituals, and in their interactions in what Maunier thought of as the agora- and forum-like open spaces of Kabyle villages. Maunier's writings on the habituations of the Algerian built environment are cited approvingly in Pierre Bourdieu's early works on structuring dispositions and habitus: see Bourdieu's 'The Kabyle house, or the world reversed', first published in 1970; reprinted in his Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique (Paris and Geneva, 1972).
54. Maunier, 'La société Kabyle', pp 55-6 in Maunier, Mélanges de sociologie Nordafricaine (Paris, 1930), pp. 54-87. Maunier was a contributor to the key Durkheimian journal Année Sociologie. His study of house-building practices and the division of labour in Algeria's Berber-speaking Kabyle region, La construction collective de la maison en Kabylie (Paris, 1926), was also a work of sociologie in the tradition of Durkheim and Mauss; it portrayed the norms of Berber life as manifestations of Mediterranean man's supposedly distinctive forms of sociality, as seen in the Kabyle Berbers' characteristic house-building styles and exchange rituals, and in their interactions in what Maunier thought of as the agora- and forum-like open spaces of Kabyle villages. Maunier's writings on the habituations of the Algerian built environment are cited approvingly in Pierre Bourdieu's early works on structuring dispositions and habitus: see Bourdieu's 'The Kabyle house, or the world reversed', first published in 1970; reprinted in his Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique (Paris and Geneva, 1972).
55. Maunier, 'La société Kabyle', pp 55-6 in Maunier, Mélanges de sociologie Nordafricaine (Paris, 1930), pp. 54-87. Maunier was a contributor to the key Durkheimian journal Année Sociologie. His study of house-building practices and the division of labour in Algeria's Berber-speaking Kabyle region, La construction collective de la maison en Kabylie (Paris, 1926), was also a work of sociologie in the tradition of Durkheim and Mauss; it portrayed the norms of Berber life as manifestations of Mediterranean man's supposedly distinctive forms of sociality, as seen in the Kabyle Berbers' characteristic house-building styles and exchange rituals, and in their interactions in what Maunier thought of as the agora- and forum-like open spaces of Kabyle villages. Maunier's writings on the habituations of the Algerian built environment are cited approvingly in Pierre Bourdieu's early works on structuring dispositions and habitus: see Bourdieu's 'The Kabyle house, or the world reversed', first published in 1970; reprinted in his Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique (Paris and Geneva, 1972).
56. Maunier, 'La société Kabyle', pp 55-6 in Maunier, Mélanges de sociologie Nordafricaine (Paris, 1930), pp. 54-87. Maunier was a contributor to the key Durkheimian journal Année Sociologie. His study of house-building practices and the division of labour in Algeria's Berber-speaking Kabyle region, La construction collective de la maison en Kabylie (Paris, 1926), was also a work of sociologie in the tradition of Durkheim and Mauss; it portrayed the norms of Berber life as manifestations of Mediterranean man's supposedly distinctive forms of sociality, as seen in the Kabyle Berbers' characteristic house-building styles and exchange rituals, and in their interactions in what Maunier thought of as the agora- and forum-like open spaces of Kabyle villages. Maunier's writings on the habituations of the Algerian built environment are cited approvingly in Pierre Bourdieu's early works on structuring dispositions and habitus: see Bourdieu's 'The Kabyle house, or the world reversed', first published in 1970; reprinted in his Esquisse d'une théorie de la pratique (Paris and Geneva, 1972).
57. Zabarowski, 'Origine des Cambodgiens, Tsiams, Mois, Dravidiens', Bulletins de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris 1897, pp. 38-58.
58. See Antoine Cabaton, Nouvelles recherches sur les Chams (Paris, 1901). In British India, the Pathans were widely portrayed by colonial race theorists as Britain's closest ethnological kin in the subcontinent.
59. On the writings of nationalist intellectuals who glorified the fall of Champa as a triumph of pre-colonial Vietnamese nationhood, see Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, pp. 115-27.
60. On Le Playists and racial evolutionism see Lebovics, True France.
61. Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984), p. 23.
62. This is in striking contrast with the ambivalent attitudes of many British commentators towards the rise of the 'educated native' as a consequence of so-called culture contact in the colonial world.
63. In addition to his own observations of Chain village life, Cabaton drew on the writings of Etienne Aymonier (e.g. 'Les Tchames et leurs religions' published in 1891 in the Revue de l'histoire des religions, a publication of France's great Asian art museum, the Musée Guimet in Paris). Among Cabaton's other works is his 1901 monograph Nouvelles recherches sur les Chams, and contributions to the EFEO Bulletin (e.g. iv:1904 p.687) and the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 3:1927 Leiden and London), pp.504-12. And see Denys Lombard, 'Un grand précurseur: Antoine Cabaton', Archipel 25, pp. 17-24.
64. In addition to his own observations of Chain village life, Cabaton drew on the writings of Etienne Aymonier (e.g. 'Les Tchames et leurs religions' published in 1891 in the Revue de l'histoire des religions, a publication of France's great Asian art museum, the Musée Guimet in Paris). Among Cabaton's other works is his 1901 monograph Nouvelles recherches sur les Chams, and contributions to the EFEO Bulletin (e.g. iv:1904 p.687) and the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 3:1927 Leiden and London), pp.504-12. And see Denys Lombard, 'Un grand précurseur: Antoine Cabaton', Archipel 25, pp. 17-24.
65. In addition to his own observations of Chain village life, Cabaton drew on the writings of Etienne Aymonier (e.g. 'Les Tchames et leurs religions' published in 1891 in the Revue de l'histoire des religions, a publication of France's great Asian art museum, the Musée Guimet in Paris). Among Cabaton's other works is his 1901 monograph Nouvelles recherches sur les Chams, and contributions to the EFEO Bulletin (e.g. iv:1904 p.687) and the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 3:1927 Leiden and London), pp.504-12. And see Denys Lombard, 'Un grand précurseur: Antoine Cabaton', Archipel 25, pp. 17-24.
66. In addition to his own observations of Chain village life, Cabaton drew on the writings of Etienne Aymonier (e.g. 'Les Tchames et leurs religions' published in 1891 in the Revue de l'histoire des religions, a publication of France's great Asian art museum, the Musée Guimet in Paris). Among Cabaton's other works is his 1901 monograph Nouvelles recherches sur les Chams, and contributions to the EFEO Bulletin (e.g. iv:1904 p.687) and the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vol. 3:1927 Leiden and London), pp.504-12. And see Denys Lombard, 'Un grand précurseur: Antoine Cabaton', Archipel 25, pp. 17-24.
67. See S. Bayly, 'Racial readings of empire'; Jacques Bertillon, La dépopulation de la France. Ses conséquences - ses causes. Mesures à prendre pour la combattre (Paris, 1911).
68. See S. Bayly, 'Racial readings of empire'; Jacques Bertillon, La dépopulation de la France. Ses conséquences - ses causes. Mesures à prendre pour la combattre (Paris, 1911).
69. Cabaton, 'Les chams musulmans de l'Indochine française', pp. 165, 179-80; RMM 1:6 1907, pp. 129-80.
70. Cabaton, 'Les chams musulmans de l'Indochine française', pp. 165, 179-80; RMM 1:6 1907, pp. 129-80.
71. Another was Tran Van Giap, a Paris-trained EFEO orientalist with leftist political connections whose pioneering five-year study of early Buddhism in Annam (Vietnam), 'Le Bouddhisme en Annam des origines au xiii' siècle', BEFEO 32:1932, pp. 191-268, is notable for its insistence on treating Buddhism from a rigorously historical perspective. (See Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, pp. 179n, 280.) Tran's work also connects with the work of Paul Mus in its portrayal of early Buddhist monks as savants whose experience of inter-regional pilgrimage gave them a concrete and factual knowledge of Asian geography, with the implication that this sense of their world as a place of maps and interconnecting ethno-geographical zones helped to nourish the Vietnamese people's enduring sense of historic identity and territoriality. (See note 82, below.)
72. Another was Tran Van Giap, a Paris-trained EFEO orientalist with leftist political connections whose pioneering five-year study of early Buddhism in Annam (Vietnam), 'Le Bouddhisme en Annam des origines au xiii' siècle', BEFEO 32:1932, pp. 191-268, is notable for its insistence on treating Buddhism from a rigorously historical perspective. (See Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, pp. 179n, 280.) Tran's work also connects with the work of Paul Mus in its portrayal of early Buddhist monks as savants whose experience of inter-regional pilgrimage gave them a concrete and factual knowledge of Asian geography, with the implication that this sense of their world as a place of maps and interconnecting ethno-geographical zones helped to nourish the Vietnamese people's enduring sense of historic identity and territoriality. (See note 82, below.)
73. This was the Hanoi-based research centre which was founded in 1938 under the auspices of Mauss's Paris Institute of Ethnology. Its list of honorary members included virtually all the luminaries of pre-war liberal social science and oriental studies including Levy-Bruhl, Mauss, Maspero, Gourou and René Maunier, together with Paul Rivet and Jacques Soustelle of the Paris Musée de l'Homme; Paul Mus served as its director in succession to Coedès until he was called up for war service in 1939.
74. In the 1930s, as Director of the Institute of Comparative Law in the University of Paris, Maunier edited a monograph series on comparative legal sociology and ethnology (Etudes de sociologie et d'ethnologie juridique). This series' publications on the colonial world included works by such scholars as the Paris-trained jurist Le Van Ho, whose monograph La mère de famille Annamite (1932) used the perspectives of both Durkheim and Mauss to transmit a covert nationalist message about the heritage of superior moral values encoded in the principles of traditional 'Annamite' (Vietnamese) civil law. Le's account of the status of wives under Vietnamese traditional law attacked colonial theorists who had represented so-called Annamite law as hierarchical and authoritarian in its treatment of both the 'conjugal community' and the ideal of good relations between subjects and rulers in Vietnamese political thought.
75. In the 1930s, as Director of the Institute of Comparative Law in the University of Paris, Maunier edited a monograph series on comparative legal sociology and ethnology (Etudes de sociologie et d'ethnologie juridique). This series' publications on the colonial world included works by such scholars as the Paris-trained jurist Le Van Ho, whose monograph La mère de famille Annamite (1932) used the perspectives of both Durkheim and Mauss to transmit a covert nationalist message about the heritage of superior moral values encoded in the principles of traditional 'Annamite' (Vietnamese) civil law. Le's account of the status of wives under Vietnamese traditional law attacked colonial theorists who had represented so-called Annamite law as hierarchical and authoritarian in its treatment of both the 'conjugal community' and the ideal of good relations between subjects and rulers in Vietnamese political thought.
76. Jeanne Leuba, Un royaume disparu. Les Chams et leur art (Paris, 1923 first pub. 1915).
77. Nguyen Thieu Lau, 'La population cham du Sud-Annam s'accroît-elle?' Bulletins et Travaux de l'Institut Indochinois pour l'Etude de l'Homme 6:1943, pp. 213-23 . Here Lau was following the teachings of such institutions as the Paris Arts and Popular Traditions Museum on the importance of national dress and traditional costume. (See Lebovics, True France.) Topics studied by IIEH researchers included Vietnamese tatooing practices and the use of space in the built environment of Vietnamese villages.
78. Nguyen Thieu Lau, 'La population cham du Sud-Annam s'accroît-elle?' Bulletins et Travaux de l'Institut Indochinois pour l'Etude de l'Homme 6:1943, pp. 213-23 . Here Lau was following the teachings of such institutions as the Paris Arts and Popular Traditions Museum on the importance of national dress and traditional costume. (See Lebovics, True France.) Topics studied by IIEH researchers included Vietnamese tatooing practices and the use of space in the built environment of Vietnamese villages.
79. On both pre-war and Vichyite cultural politics including campaigns for the recovery of regional patois, dress, and folk arts, see Lebovics, True France. These initiatives bear comparison with the promotion of traditional artisanal products (sivadeshi) in India. Emma Tarlo, Clothing Matters. Dress and Identity in India (London, 1996). Colonial Vietnam too had a movement for the creation and popularization of 'national' dress.
80. On both pre-war and Vichyite cultural politics including campaigns for the recovery of regional patois, dress, and folk arts, see Lebovics, True France. These initiatives bear comparison with the promotion of traditional artisanal products (sivadeshi) in India. Emma Tarlo, Clothing Matters. Dress and Identity in India (London, 1996). Colonial Vietnam too had a movement for the creation and popularization of 'national' dress.
81. R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, vol. 1, Champa (Greater India Society Publication No. 1, Lahore, 1927), PP. xxii-xxiii. The other polities in Indochina which were held to be 'Indic' by these Further India polemicists were Cambodia and the early Funan realm (present-day south Vietnam). The great kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago were also said to be the products of Indian 'colonization'. The Greater India Society's first President was Kalidas Nag; its patrons included the Hindu nationalist Madan Mohan Malaviya. Leading French Indologists like Sylvian Levi inspired these Indian polemicists with accounts of India's 'civilizing mission' in southeast Asia. See Levi, L'Inde civilisatrice. Aperçue historique (Paris, 1938).
82. R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, vol. 1, Champa (Greater India Society Publication No. 1, Lahore, 1927), PP. xxii-xxiii. The other polities in Indochina which were held to be 'Indic' by these Further India polemicists were Cambodia and the early Funan realm (present-day south Vietnam). The great kingdoms of the Indonesian archipelago were also said to be the products of Indian 'colonization'. The Greater India Society's first President was Kalidas Nag; its patrons included the Hindu nationalist Madan Mohan Malaviya. Leading French Indologists like Sylvian Levi inspired these Indian polemicists with accounts of India's 'civilizing mission' in southeast Asia. See Levi, L'Inde civilisatrice. Aperçue historique (Paris, 1938).
83. The major outlet for these writings was the Journal of the Greater India Society.
84. India's Theosophical movement also sponsored work on Further India, including the writings of the Vishvabharati scholar Phanindranath Bose, author of the 400-page The Hindu Colony of Cambodia, pub. 1927. Bose's other studies of India's 'Hindu cultural empire' in southeast Asia included works on Champa, Siam and China.
85. Review of The Hindu Colony of Cambodia by Phanidranath Bosè (Madras, 1927), p. 620, The Vedic Magazine and Gurukula Samachar (December, 1927), pp. 620-1.
86. Review of The Hindu Colony of Cambodia by Phanidranath Bosè (Madras, 1927), p. 620, The Vedic Magazine and Gurukula Samachar (December, 1927), pp. 620-1.
87. Ibid.
88. Ibid.
89. (Anon), 'Contemporary thought reviewed' [review of a work by the Greater India polemicist Kalidas Nag], Vedic Magazine 26:5 (1927), pp. 295-7; Phanindranath Bose, 'An interpretation of Greater India', Vedic Magazine 26:8 (1927), pp. 521-8.
90. (Anon), 'Contemporary thought reviewed' [review of a work by the Greater India polemicist Kalidas Nag], Vedic Magazine 26:5 (1927), pp. 295-7; Phanindranath Bose, 'An interpretation of Greater India', Vedic Magazine 26:8 (1927), pp. 521-8.
91. Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies, i:21.
92. No less a figure than the celebrated EFEO orientalist George Coedès (author of Les états hindouisés d'Indochine et d'Indonésie (Paris, 1948) praised these Greater India polemicists for 'rediscovering' their heritage as a 'great colonizing people'. See the account by the Calcutta philologist Suniti Kumar Chatterji of his two visits to Indonesia, first under Dutch rule in 1927 accompanying Tagore, and then in 1954 as President of the Greater India Society to address an Indonesian Government Congress on Bahasa. Chatterji, 'The National Language of Indonesia', Journal of the Greater India Society 14:1 (1954), pp. 1-11.
93. No less a figure than the celebrated EFEO orientalist George Coedès (author of Les états hindouisés d'Indochine et d'Indonésie (Paris, 1948) praised these Greater India polemicists for 'rediscovering' their heritage as a 'great colonizing people'. See the account by the Calcutta philologist Suniti Kumar Chatterji of his two visits to Indonesia, first under Dutch rule in 1927 accompanying Tagore, and then in 1954 as President of the Greater India Society to address an Indonesian Government Congress on Bahasa. Chatterji, 'The National Language of Indonesia', Journal of the Greater India Society 14:1 (1954), pp. 1-11.
94. In this respect Mus's career invites comparison with such British anthropologists as Edmund Leach, though Leach's writings do not mention his intelligence work; nor do they treat the war and colonial rule as central to the transformations explored in his path-breaking Political Systems of Highland Burma (London, 1954).
95. Mus in contrast makes much of the contributions of his fellow orientalists to the framing of Allied propaganda messages, and provides a telling glimpse of his encounters with the British military mind: a reader of one of his reports annotated it with the dismissive comment-'Aucune importance: ce ne sont que les idées.' ('Nothing of value; just ideas'). Paul Mus, Le destin de l'Union Française de l'Indochine à l'Afrique (Paris, 1954), p. 7. See also I. W. Mabbett and D. P. Chandler (eds), India seen from the East. Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa (Victoria, Australia, 1975), p. xiv. On Mus's background see Serge Thion, 'Introduction', Mus, L'angle de l'Asie (Paris, 1977); Serge Pahaut, 'Cosmologie bouddhique et philosophie de l'histoire', Prefaces 19 (July-Sept. 1990), pp. 107-11; and obituary by Guy Morechand in EFEO Bulletin lvii 91970), pp. 25-38.
96. Mus in contrast makes much of the contributions of his fellow orientalists to the framing of Allied propaganda messages, and provides a telling glimpse of his encounters with the British military mind: a reader of one of his reports annotated it with the dismissive comment-'Aucune importance: ce ne sont que les idées.' ('Nothing of value; just ideas'). Paul Mus, Le destin de l'Union Française de l'Indochine à l'Afrique (Paris, 1954), p. 7. See also I. W. Mabbett and D. P. Chandler (eds), India seen from the East. Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa (Victoria, Australia, 1975), p. xiv. On Mus's background see Serge Thion, 'Introduction', Mus, L'angle de l'Asie (Paris, 1977); Serge Pahaut, 'Cosmologie bouddhique et philosophie de l'histoire', Prefaces 19 (July-Sept. 1990), pp. 107-11; and obituary by Guy Morechand in EFEO Bulletin lvii 91970), pp. 25-38.
97. Mus in contrast makes much of the contributions of his fellow orientalists to the framing of Allied propaganda messages, and provides a telling glimpse of his encounters with the British military mind: a reader of one of his reports annotated it with the dismissive comment-'Aucune importance: ce ne sont que les idées.' ('Nothing of value; just ideas'). Paul Mus, Le destin de l'Union Française de l'Indochine à l'Afrique (Paris, 1954), p. 7. See also I. W. Mabbett and D. P. Chandler (eds), India seen from the East. Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa (Victoria, Australia, 1975), p. xiv. On Mus's background see Serge Thion, 'Introduction', Mus, L'angle de l'Asie (Paris, 1977); Serge Pahaut, 'Cosmologie bouddhique et philosophie de l'histoire', Prefaces 19 (July-Sept. 1990), pp. 107-11; and obituary by Guy Morechand in EFEO Bulletin lvii 91970), pp. 25-38.
98. Mus in contrast makes much of the contributions of his fellow orientalists to the framing of Allied propaganda messages, and provides a telling glimpse of his encounters with the British military mind: a reader of one of his reports annotated it with the dismissive comment-'Aucune importance: ce ne sont que les idées.' ('Nothing of value; just ideas'). Paul Mus, Le destin de l'Union Française de l'Indochine à l'Afrique (Paris, 1954), p. 7. See also I. W. Mabbett and D. P. Chandler (eds), India seen from the East. Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa (Victoria, Australia, 1975), p. xiv. On Mus's background see Serge Thion, 'Introduction', Mus, L'angle de l'Asie (Paris, 1977); Serge Pahaut, 'Cosmologie bouddhique et philosophie de l'histoire', Prefaces 19 (July-Sept. 1990), pp. 107-11; and obituary by Guy Morechand in EFEO Bulletin lvii 91970), pp. 25-38.
99. Mus in contrast makes much of the contributions of his fellow orientalists to the framing of Allied propaganda messages, and provides a telling glimpse of his encounters with the British military mind: a reader of one of his reports annotated it with the dismissive comment-'Aucune importance: ce ne sont que les idées.' ('Nothing of value; just ideas'). Paul Mus, Le destin de l'Union Française de l'Indochine à l'Afrique (Paris, 1954), p. 7. See also I. W. Mabbett and D. P. Chandler (eds), India seen from the East. Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa (Victoria, Australia, 1975), p. xiv. On Mus's background see Serge Thion, 'Introduction', Mus, L'angle de l'Asie (Paris, 1977); Serge Pahaut, 'Cosmologie bouddhique et philosophie de l'histoire', Prefaces 19 (July-Sept. 1990), pp. 107-11; and obituary by Guy Morechand in EFEO Bulletin lvii 91970), pp. 25-38.
100. Mus in contrast makes much of the contributions of his fellow orientalists to the framing of Allied propaganda messages, and provides a telling glimpse of his encounters with the British military mind: a reader of one of his reports annotated it with the dismissive comment-'Aucune importance: ce ne sont que les idées.' ('Nothing of value; just ideas'). Paul Mus, Le destin de l'Union Française de l'Indochine à l'Afrique (Paris, 1954), p. 7. See also I. W. Mabbett and D. P. Chandler (eds), India seen from the East. Indian and Indigenous Cults in Champa (Victoria, Australia, 1975), p. xiv. On Mus's background see Serge Thion, 'Introduction', Mus, L'angle de l'Asie (Paris, 1977); Serge Pahaut, 'Cosmologie bouddhique et philosophie de l'histoire', Prefaces 19 (July-Sept. 1990), pp. 107-11; and obituary by Guy Morechand in EFEO Bulletin lvii 91970), pp. 25-38.
101. Mus, Le Viet Nam chez lui (Paris, 1946), pp. 10-11.
102. Mus, Vietnam. Sociologie d'une guerre (Paris, 1952).
103. Mabbett and Chandler, India Seen from the East, p. xiii. This translation of Mus's Champa study, 'Cultes indiens et indigènes au Champa', EFEO Bulletin 33 (1933), pp. 367-410, is referred to hereafter as Mus 1975. The other key influence on Mus's work was the cultural geographer Pierre Gourou whose writings also helped to popularize the term Monsoon Asia (l'Asie des Moussons). On the Borobudur study, see note 73, below.
104. Mabbett and Chandler, India Seen from the East, p. xiii. This translation of Mus's Champa study, 'Cultes indiens et indigènes au Champa', EFEO Bulletin 33 (1933), pp. 367-410, is referred to hereafter as Mus 1975. The other key influence on Mus's work was the cultural geographer Pierre Gourou whose writings also helped to popularize the term Monsoon Asia (l'Asie des Moussons). On the Borobudur study, see note 73, below.
105. Mus 1975, p. 5.
106. Mus, Chi Minh, Le Vietnam, L'Asie (Paris, 1971).
107. '. . . l'immuable Asie, la statique Asie . . . se révèle, à la regarder de plus près, impregnée du principe . . . de mutation, c'est à dire, . . . de discontinuité ... Je ne parle pas des philosophes . . .: la masse elle-même est susceptible de ces emportements collectifs'. (Not just the men of learning but the masses too are imbued with this collective sense of mutation and discontinuity.) Le Viel Nam chez lui, p. 31.
108. Ibid., pp. 33-8.
109. Mus, '[With the Japanese occupation of Indochina] . . . we had been, if I dare say it, snuffed out (soufflé) by hsitory. . . If we try to return, this could only be against the decree of destiny, without any chance of success and without power to bring with us anything but disorder and harm.' (p. 38).
110. See Raymond F. Betts, France and Decolonisation, 1900-1960 (London, 1991).
111. The influence of Mauss was also important for Mus, most notably in Mus's analysis of the collective habituations and pathologies of colonialism. His treatment of interactions between rulers and ruled echoed Mauss's concern with the application of sociological method to interactions between as well as within dynamic social systems. This interest in what has been termed 'intersociality', meaning interactive relationships between different societies (as opposed to 'intersociality', the inner mechanisms of an individual social system), has been seen as an anticipation in Mauss's work of present-day sociological theories of globalization. See Wendy James and N.J. Allen (eds), Marcel Mauss: A Centenary Tribute (Oxford, 1998).
112. Mus 1975:14 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:376.
113. Mus 1975:14 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:376.
114. Again Mus departs from the orientalist stereotype in his dismissal of those who pronounce on Indic cultures without taking note of ethnographic data and 'folk' traditions as well as classical texts: this, he says, is to 'mistake a library for a country' (ibid.).
115. Mus 1975:15 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:377.
116. 62 Mus 1975:15-16 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:377. '. . .[The] manifestation of the god in an ancestor, in a chief or in a tutelary stone was the materialization of a contract [in which] . . . the group and the impalpable god come together . . . So to worship this [local entity]. . . is simply to make perceptible the passage of the amorphous deity to its accessible manifestation . . . [and hence] to use the manifestation as a means of gaining access to the soil: [This is] a magical act of occupation more direct and therefore more profoundly satisfying than a mythological personification pure and simple'. Mus 1975:23-4 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:384.
117. 62 Mus 1975:15-16 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:377. '. . .[The] manifestation of the god in an ancestor, in a chief or in a tutelary stone was the materialization of a contract [in which] . . . the group and the impalpable god come together . . . So to worship this [local entity]. . . is simply to make perceptible the passage of the amorphous deity to its accessible manifestation . . . [and hence] to use the manifestation as a means of gaining access to the soil: [This is] a magical act of occupation more direct and therefore more profoundly satisfying than a mythological personification pure and simple'. Mus 1975:23-4 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:384.
118. Mus 1975: pp. 37, 39 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:394.
119. Mus Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 105.
120. Mus 1975:43, 48-9 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:405-6.
121. Mus 1975:39 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:396.
122. Mus 1975:39 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:396.
123. Mus 1975:39 and Mus 'Cultes' 1933:396.
124. E.g. S. J. Tambiah, Buddhism Betrayed. Religion, Politics and Violence in Sri Lanka (Chicago, 1992).
125. Mus, Le destin, pp. 128-32.
126. Ibid., p. 132: again there is a striking contrast with British anthropologists whose Durkheim-inspired functionalism generated very few such comparative reflections on morality and culture in their own society.
127. This reflects the influence of another of Mus's pre-war mentors, the radicalpacifist philosopher Alain (Emile Auguste Chartier, 1868-1951), who had taught him at his Paris lycée.
128. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 301.
129. A shortened and simplified edition of this work was published in English as John T. McAlister Jr and Paul Mus, The Vietnamese and their Revolution (New York, 1970, hereafter McAlister 1970).
130. There appear to be no English editions of Mus's other major works apart from the Mabbett and Chandler translation of his 1933 Champa study, and Alexander W. Macdonald's translation of his 1932-3 Barabudur. Sketch of a History of Buddhism Based on Archaeological Criticism of the Texts (New Delhi, 1998).
131. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 303.
132. Ibid., p. 306 and McAlister 1970:146-8.
133. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 92. Compare C. Bayly's account of pre-modern forms of patriotism in Origins of Nationality in South Asia. Patriotism and Ethical Government in the Making of Modern India (Delhi, 1998). A similar theme is pursued in Maunier's account of Algeria as a domain of defective sociality, the chief offenders in his view being urban Arabs whom he saw as hoarders of both money and women, equating the Arab household's supposed propensity to secrete useless uninvested wealth with its seclusion of female kin: both in his view were pathological in their denial of healthy sociability and circulation. Maunier, Loi française et coutume indigène en Algérie (Paris, 1932), p. 35.
134. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 92. Compare C. Bayly's account of pre-modern forms of patriotism in Origins of Nationality in South Asia. Patriotism and Ethical Government in the Making of Modern India (Delhi, 1998). A similar theme is pursued in Maunier's account of Algeria as a domain of defective sociality, the chief offenders in his view being urban Arabs whom he saw as hoarders of both money and women, equating the Arab household's supposed propensity to secrete useless uninvested wealth with its seclusion of female kin: both in his view were pathological in their denial of healthy sociability and circulation. Maunier, Loi française et coutume indigène en Algérie (Paris, 1932), p. 35.
135. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 92. Compare C. Bayly's account of pre-modern forms of patriotism in Origins of Nationality in South Asia. Patriotism and Ethical Government in the Making of Modern India (Delhi, 1998). A similar theme is pursued in Maunier's account of Algeria as a domain of defective sociality, the chief offenders in his view being urban Arabs whom he saw as hoarders of both money and women, equating the Arab household's supposed propensity to secrete useless uninvested wealth with its seclusion of female kin: both in his view were pathological in their denial of healthy sociability and circulation. Maunier, Loi française et coutume indigène en Algérie (Paris, 1932), p. 35.
136. Mus, Ho Chi Minh. Le Vietnam, L'Asie (Paris, 1971), p. 19. The theme of resistance is prominent in Mus's work, especially in Sociologie d'une guerre (e.g. pp. 220-1); here too he aroused controversy by insisting that there were close parallels between wartime French resistance to the Axis occupation forces and Vietnamese patriotic resistance to foreign rule. In the 1930s, the Vietnamese language press regularly sought to subvert the French censorship laws by publishing essays and poems ostensibly extolling the beauties of the Indochinese countryside, but containing graphic references to such things as automated rice mills as agents of violation in a land being stripped and brutalized by colonial rule. (Examples in file headed 'Presse indigène Tonkin 1930', GGI 65408, Archives d'outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence.).
137. Mus, Ho Chi Minh. Le Vietnam, L'Asie (Paris, 1971), p. 19. The theme of resistance is prominent in Mus's work, especially in Sociologie d'une guerre (e.g. pp. 220-1); here too he aroused controversy by insisting that there were close parallels between wartime French resistance to the Axis occupation forces and Vietnamese patriotic resistance to foreign rule. In the 1930s, the Vietnamese language press regularly sought to subvert the French censorship laws by publishing essays and poems ostensibly extolling the beauties of the Indochinese countryside, but containing graphic references to such things as automated rice mills as agents of violation in a land being stripped and brutalized by colonial rule. (Examples in file headed 'Presse indigène Tonkin 1930', GGI 65408, Archives d'outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence.).
138. Mus, Ho Chi Minh. Le Vietnam, L'Asie (Paris, 1971), p. 19. The theme of resistance is prominent in Mus's work, especially in Sociologie d'une guerre (e.g. pp. 220-1); here too he aroused controversy by insisting that there were close parallels between wartime French resistance to the Axis occupation forces and Vietnamese patriotic resistance to foreign rule. In the 1930s, the Vietnamese language press regularly sought to subvert the French censorship laws by publishing essays and poems ostensibly extolling the beauties of the Indochinese countryside, but containing graphic references to such things as automated rice mills as agents of violation in a land being stripped and brutalized by colonial rule. (Examples in file headed 'Presse indigène Tonkin 1930', GGI 65408, Archives d'outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence.).
139. Mus, Le Viet Nam chez, lui, p. 33.
140. Mus, Le Viet Nam chez lui.
141. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 220. Very much unlike his views on the Vietnamese, Mus's thinking is decidedly Orientalist' in his assertions about the 'fatalistic' nature of Muslim thought.
142. Mus, Ho Chi Minh. Le Vietnam, L'Asie, pp. 19-23. In the Saigon/Ho Chi Minh City History Museum (established in 1929 by the Société des Etudes Indochinoises), exhibits dating from the colonial era still portray the country's history as an episodic sequence of resistance episodes, with pictorial montages of Vietnamese liberators fighting foreign invaders.
143. Ibid., p. 24. Here too Mus echoes the perspectives of such scholars as Tran Van Giap (see note 35, above) in ascribing to the Vietnamese a sense of their homeland not as a disembodied abstraction or projection of idealized 'galactic kingship', but as a defined and bounded polity mapped in real territorial space. Mus thus anticipates Benedict Anderson in relating the emergence of national consciousness to the acquisition of concrete geographical knowledge through map-making and the writings of pilgrims and other travellers. In Mus's formulation, however, this 'modern' sense of nationhood has its roots in classic Vietnamese texts, most notably in pilgrimage accounts describing the known world as a composite of defined polities with their own humoural essences, and with Vietnam (or Annam) existing as a co-equal imperial realm to that of China. Ibid., pp. 32 ff.
144. Ibid., p. 24. Here too Mus echoes the perspectives of such scholars as Tran Van Giap (see note 35, above) in ascribing to the Vietnamese a sense of their homeland not as a disembodied abstraction or projection of idealized 'galactic kingship', but as a defined and bounded polity mapped in real territorial space. Mus thus anticipates Benedict Anderson in relating the emergence of national consciousness to the acquisition of concrete geographical knowledge through map-making and the writings of pilgrims and other travellers. In Mus's formulation, however, this 'modern' sense of nationhood has its roots in classic Vietnamese texts, most notably in pilgrimage accounts describing the known world as a composite of defined polities with their own humoural essences, and with Vietnam (or Annam) existing as a co-equal imperial realm to that of China. Ibid., pp. 32 ff.
145. Ibid., pp. 79-80.
146. Mus, Ho Chi Minh. Le Vietnam, L'Asie.
147. This work is a posthumous edition of an unfinished manuscript; the editors claim that it is a faithful rendering of Mus's text. See editors' foreword, p. 7. Mus's account of the dynamic yet consensual cultural unities of the peasant commune contrasts strikingly with the formulations of those nationalists who portrayed Vietnamese village life as a regime of tyranny in which colonial law forcibly tied the peasant to his natal locale, depriving him of mobility and individuality, enslaving him to the will of the French-backed mandarin elite, and making impossible 'the development of his personality'. Hence far from being a defence of a beneficent village-based moral economy, these nationalists described the great Depression-era 'Red Terror' uprisings of 1930-31 as a struggle for emancipation from 'enslavement' within the peasant commune. Pham Van Quang et al. for the Chambre des Représentants du Peuple d'Annam, in Annex 3. Notes périodiques de la direction de la Sûreté Générale, April 1937, in GGI 65443, Centre des Archives d'Outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence. Compare Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial.
148. Mus, Ho Chi Minh. Le Vietnam, L'Asie, p. 82.
149. Ibid., p. 38.
150. Ibid., p. 39.
151. McAlister 1970, p. 98.
152. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 140.
153. Ibid.
154. Ibid., pp. 139 ff. and McAlister 1970, pp. 96 ff.
155. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 142 and McAlister 1970, p. 96.
156. McAlister 1970, p. 103.
157. Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 146 and McAlister 1970, p. 96.
158. McAlister 1970, p. 101 and Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 143.
159. McAlister 1970, p. 101 and Mus, Sociologie d'une guerre, p. 143.
160. From the 1950s until his death in 1969, Mus held a visiting professorship at Yale, where he taught John McAlister in the late 1950s. McAlister was an important influence on participants in the debate between the Scott - Wolf moral economists and their opponents, notably Samuel Popkin, whose seminal monograph The Rational Peasant. The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam (Berkeley, 1979), makes many references to Mus and McAlister, and also to Gourou and other French cultural geographers whose writings share many of the intellectual orientations of the Annales historians. See also Scott on his intellectual debt to the Annales school: The Moral Economy of the Peasant. Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, 1976), p. viii.
161. From the 1950s until his death in 1969, Mus held a visiting professorship at Yale, where he taught John McAlister in the late 1950s. McAlister was an important influence on participants in the debate between the Scott - Wolf moral economists and their opponents, notably Samuel Popkin, whose seminal monograph The Rational Peasant. The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam (Berkeley, 1979), makes many references to Mus and McAlister, and also to Gourou and other French cultural geographers whose writings share many of the intellectual orientations of the Annales historians. See also Scott on his intellectual debt to the Annales school: The Moral Economy of the Peasant. Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, 1976), p. viii.