From the inside out: Therapeutic penology and political liberalism in postwar California

Osiris

Volumn 22, Issue , 2007, Pages 116-134

  Janssen, Volker ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 35348943452     PISSN: 03697827     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/521745     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Notable exceptions are Challes Bright, The Powers That Punish: Prison and Politics in the Era of the "Big House," 1920-1955 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1996);
2. Jonathan Simon, Poor Discipline: Parole and the Social Control of the Underclass, 1890-1990 (Chicago, 1993);
3. Daniel Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives: The Pioneering Penology of Richard McGee (New York, 1995).
4. Emphasizing the continuity between slavery and imprisonment are Loic J. D. Wacquant, Les prisons de la misère (Paris, 1999);
5. Wacquant, "From Slavery to Mass Incarceration: Rethinking the 'Race Question' in the U.S.," New Left Review 13 (2002): 41-60;
6. Christian Parenti, "The 'New' Criminal Justice System.: State Repression from 1868 to 2001," Monthly Review 53(3) (2001): 19;
7. Kim Gilmore, "Slavery and Prison-Understanding the Connections," in Social Justice 27(3) (2000): 195.
8. This continuity is also apparent in the recent scholarship on prisons: Robert Perkinson, " 'Between the Worst of the Past and the Worst of the Future' : Reconsidering Convict Leasing in the South," Radical History Review 71 (1998): 207-16;
9. Mary Ellen Cunrtin, Black Prisoners and Their World: Alabama, 1865-1900 (Charlottesville, Va., 2000);
10. Paul Michael Lucko, "Prison Farms, Walls, and Society: Punishment and Politics in Texas, 1848-1910" (PhD diss., Univ. of Texas, Austin, 1999);
11. Norbert Finzsch, " 'The Obsession With Work' : Criminology, Labor, Convict Labor, and Social Control in Nineteenthand Twentieth-Century America" (unpublished paper, Univ. of Hamburg, Germany, 1998);
12. Martha A. Myers, "Race, Labor, and Punishment in the New South," Social Problems 38 (May 1991): 267-87;
13. Matthew J. Mancini, One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866-1928 (Columbia, S.C, 1996).
14. Most remarkably, Alex Lichtenstein, Twice the Work of Free Labor: The Political Economy of Convict Labor in the New South (New York, 1996), has connected southern penal slavery at the turn of the century with progressive politics.
15. See, e.g., Eric Cummins, The Rise and Fall of California's Radical Prison Movement (Palo Alto, Calif., 1994);
16. Robert Perkinson, "'Scrap Iron, Broken Glass, and Barbed Wire': Convict Writing and the Rise and Fall of Convict Leasing in Texas," in Prison Writing: Probing the Boundaries, ed. Diana Mendlicott (Amsterdam, 2003).
17. Consider, in particular, the work of Michael Bernstein, Ellen Herman, and Alice O' Connor on how the changing political circumstances of the war and postwar years shaped the relationship between experts, their science, and statecraft. Michael A. Bernstein and Allen Hunter, eds., The Cold War and Expert Knowledge: New Essays on the History of the National Security State, Rad. Hist. Rev. 63 (Fall1995);
18. Michael A. Bernstein, A Perilous Progress: Economists and Public Purpose in TwentiethCentury America (Princeton, N.J., 2001);
19. Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts, 1940-1970 (Berkeley, Calif., 1995);
20. Alice O'Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, N.J., 2001).
21. Harry Elmer Barnes, Report on the Progress of the State Prison War Program under the Government Division of the War Production Board (Washington, D.C., 1944), 86.
22. Theodor W. Adorno had revealed the disturbingly undemocratic and fascist tendencies among prisoners in San Quentin in his seminal study, Adorno et al., The Authoritarian Personality (New York, 1950).
23. However, the horrors of carcéral exclusion, and destruction of prisoners in German concentration, camps and Soviet gulags had highlighted the totalitarian roots of imprisonment. James B. Jacobs, "Macrosociology and Imprisonment," in Corrections and Punishment, ed. David F. Greenberg (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1977), 89-107, on 92.
24. The chief designer of California's therapeutic corrections initiatives, Norman Fenton, described his charges as fellow veterans with "mental wounds," and his narrative of family life, delinquency, institutionalization, and redemption closely followed the model provided by army psychologists. For more details, see Volker Janssen, "Convict Labor Civic Welfare: Rehabilitation in California's Prisons, 1941-1971" (PhD diss., Univ. of California, San Diego, 2005).
25. John Irwin, Prisons in Turmoil (Boston, 1980), 56, 61.
26. A prisoner in San Quentin during the heyday of therapeutic corrections, Malcolm. Braly, recalled the deadening boredom and growing cynicism of counseling sessions in his novel On the Yard (Boston, 1967), 103-4;
27. John Irwin, The Felon (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970), 52-3.
28. By placing conditions for a return to citizenship and freedom into the realm of the self, some have argued, the practice of therapeutic corrections disenfranchised prisoners for whom, the specialists' psychological terrain of selfhood remained unfamiliar. Most accounts suggest that prisoners found the expectations of therapists and guards confusing and contradictory, and many resented being considered "mad" rather than "bad." Rebecca McLennan, "Citizens and Criminals: The Rise of the American Carceral State, 1890-1935" (PhD diss., Columbia University, New York, 1999);
29. McLennan, "Punishment's Square Deal: Prisoners and Their Keepers in 1920s New York," in Journal of Urban History 29(5) (2003): 597-619, on 608;
30. Cummins, Rise and Fall of California's Radical Prison Movement (cit. n. 3), 14;
31. Bright, The Powers That Punish (cit. n. 1), 278.
32. A 1966 survey among recent parolees suggested, however, that a large majority - 72 percent-did not understand counseling as a form of social control but one of boredom and irritation. Irwin, The Felon (cit. n. 8), 52-3.
33. Few understoodcounseling as a coordinated effort at mind control as some critics of the New Left school of criminology suggested in the 1970s. See, e.g., Richard Speiglman, "Prison Psychiatrists and Drugs: A Case Study,"
34. Stephen J. Pohl, "Deciding on Dangerousness: Predictions of Violence as Social Control,"
35. and Bob Martin, "The Massachusetts Correctional System: Treatment as an Ideology for Control," in Punishment and Penal Discipline: Essays on the Prison and the Prisoners' Movement, ed. Tony Piatt and Paul Takagi (Berkeley, Calif., 1980).
36. Ronald M. Berkman, Opening the Gates: The Rise of the Prisoners Movement (Princeton, N.J., 1977), 61;
37. Cummins, Rise and Fall of California's Radical Prison Movement (cit. n. 3), 13;
38. Bright, The Powers That Punish (cit. n. 1), 188.
39. Robert M. Harrison and Richard A. McGee to Group Counseling Program Supervisors: Script of Role Playing Situation at San Quentin, memo, 19 Nov. 1959, F3717:581 Corrections, Correctional Program Services, Projects and Programs, Group Counseling 1955-1960, California State Archives Records (hereafter cited as CSA).
40. Sociologists David Powelson and Reinhard Bendix noted the basic tension between custody and care in 1951, notes Irwin, The Felon (cit. n. 8), 52;
41. James B. Jacobs, New Perspectives on Prisons and Imprisonment (Ithaca, N. Y., 1983), 140;
42. R. Theodore Davidson, Chicano Prisoners: The Key to San Quentin (New York, 1974), 29-30;
43. Bright, The Powers That Punish (cit. n. 1), 276, 279.
44. For a gendered interpretation of the class divide among prison, staff, see Dennie Briggs, Stuart Whiteley, and Merfyn Turner, Dealing with Deviants: The Treatment of Antisocial Behavior (New York, 1973), 99-100.
45. A gendered division between welfare and discipline is the theme of Velia Garcia, "My Momma the State: A Socio-Cultural Study of the Criminalization of Chicanos" (PhD diss., Univ. of California, Berkeley, 1990).
46. In 1953, only 100 of the 8,000 psychiatrists in the United States were employed by correctional institutions, with less than one-third of them employed full time. In 1957, that number had grown somewhat to 133 psychiatrists, 90 psychologists, and 162 social workers, more than half of them in California. Irwin, Prisons in Turmoil (cit. n. 7), 44;
47. Gene Kassebaum and David Ward, Prison Treatment and Parole Survival (New York, 1971);
48. Joseph C. Finney, Ph.D., M.D., "A Report on Mental Health in Corrections in California," With Recommendations for Hawaii, 31, F3717:931 Corrections-Medical Services Division, Central Files Psychiatric Services, 1961-62, CSA; F3717:1587 Corrections Administration Manuals, Group Counseling Manuals, 1962-1965, Chapter IGC-I-00, CSA.
49. James Park, a corrections psychologist and later associate warden of San Quentin 1964-1972, thought that Fenton's trust in the guards "was due to some scholarly misreading of the prison employees' blue collar culture." Quoted in Joseph W. Eaton, Stone Walls Not a Prison Make: The Anatomy of Planned Administrative Change (Springfield, I11., 1962), 172.
50. Kenyon J. Scudder, Prisoners Are People (Garden City, N. Y., 1952);
51. Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives (cit. n. 1);
52. Norman Fenton, What Will Be Your Life? (Sacramento, Calif., 1955);
53. Coffin v. Reichard, 143 F.2d 443,445 (6th Cir. 1944);
54. John Bartlow Martin, "Prison: The Enemy of Society," Harper's Magazine, April 1954, 29-38, on 36.
55. The two projects were the Pilot Intensive Counseling Organization (PICO) and the Intensive Treatment Project (ITP). Both efforts involved the intensified use of professional therapeutic staff. California Department of Corrections, Biennial Report, 1955-1956 (Sacramento, Calif., 1957), 4;
56. Dennie Briggs, interview with author, 1 Nov. 2003, Berkeley, Calif.;
57. Intensive Treatment Program, First Annual Report, Oct. 1957, Institutional Treatment Programs 1958, F3717:350 Corrections Administration, Reports & Studies, CSA;
58. Douglas J. Grant, Joan Grant, and Dennie Briggs, "Personality Integration and Delinquency Rehabilitation: An Occasional Paper" (unpublished paper, in author's possession), 8;
59. Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives (cit. n. 1), 128;
60. Glaser, The Effectiveness of a Prison and Parole System (Indianapolis, 1964), 7;
61. Briggs, Whiteley, and Turner, Dealing with Deviants (cit. n. 11), 102.
62. Don M. Gottfredson and Kelley B. Ballard, Offender Classification and Parole Prediction (Sacramento, Calif., 1966).
63. In developing the base expectancy score, Grant drew on the work of Hermann Mannheim and Leslie Wilkins in England. Douglas J. Grant, "It's Time to Start Counting," Crime and Delinquency 8 (1962): 261;
64. Hermann Mannheim and Leslie T. Wilkins, Prediction Methods in Relations to Borstal Training (London, 1955).
65. The base expectancy states the expected parole violation rate for a given group made on the basis of past experience with such groups. Maxwell Jones, Dennie Briggs, and Joy Tuxford, "What Has Psychiatry to Leam from Penology?" British Journal of Criminology 4 (1966): 227-38, on 228;
66. Michael Hakeem, "Prediction of Parole Outcome from Summaries of Case Histories," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Political Science (July-Aug. 1961): 145-55;
67. E. Savides, "A. Parole Success Prediction Study," and Don M. Gottfredson, "Comparing and Combining Subjective and Objective Parole Predictions," Research Newsletter of the California Department of Corrections 3-4 (Sept.-Dec. 1961).
68. Simon, Poor Discipline (cit. n. 1), 173.
69. For a debate among corrections professionals over the strengths and weaknesses of statistical prediction tools, see Victor H. Evjen, "Current Thinking on Parole Prediction Tables," Crime and Delinquency 8 (July 1962): 215-38.
70. Douglas J. Grant, "It's Time to Start Counting" (cit. n. 16), 259-64;
71. Simon, Poor Discipline (cit. n. 1), 173.
72. Statistical prediction tools had their own history, as Jonathan Simon has pointed out, beginning with the work of criminologists such as Ernest Burgess at the University of Chicago in the 1920s. Sociologists Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck subsequently refined the Burgess method with the help of multivariate regression analysis. Social scientists further honed this technique for military applications during World War II and subsequently in the Department of Defense. Simon, Poor Discipline (cit. n. 1), 172.
73. See also Jonathan Simon and Malcolm M. Feeley, "True Crime: The New Penology andPublic Discourse on Crime," in Punishment and Social Control: Essays in Honor of Sheldon L. Messinger, ed. Stanley Cohen, Sheldon L. Messinger, and Thomas G. Blomberg (New York 1995). Although the connection between research in the military-scientific complex and the social sciences has become a thriving field in the history of science and postwar politics, the entanglement of liberal therapeutic corrections in the structures of the military welfare state has not been recognized.
74. Douglas Grant and Marguerite Q. Grant, "A Group Dynamics Approach to the Treatment of Nonconformists in the Navy," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 322 (March 1959): 126-35, on 126.
75. Dennie Briggs, In Prison: Transitional Therapeutic Communities. Research and Demonstration Project Conducted by the California Department of Corrections, 1958-1965 (London, 2000), 8, http://www.pettarc.hiv.org.uk.
76. Briggs, Whiteley, and Turner, Dealing with Deviants (cit. n. 11), 103.
77. Grant and Grant, "A Group Dynamics Approach" (cit. n. 20), 128-9.
78. Ibid., 130; Eaton, Stone Walls Not a Prison Make (cit. n. 13), 172, 191 ;
79. Eugene Wells, "Increased Correctional Effectiveness Unit" and "Therapeutic Community Living Program," Correctional Review, March-June 1965, 21-4, 20;
80. Robert M. Harrison and Paul F. C. Mueller, Clue-Hunting About Group Counseling and Parole Outcome, Research Report no. 11, California, Department of Corrections Research Division (Sacramento, 1964);
81. Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives (cit. n. 1), 78.
82. Maxwell Jones, The Therapeutic Community: A New Treatment Method in Psychiatry (New York, 1953), ix, xv, xvii.
83. Harry Wilmer, Social Psychiatry in Action: A Therapeutic Community (Springfield, I11., 1958);
84. Dennie Briggs, "In the Navy: Therapeutic Community Experiment at the U.S. Naval Hospital, Oakland, California," Occasional Papers, ser. 1, no. 2, San Francisco, 2000, http://www.pettarchiv.org.uk/ pubs-dbriggs-navyhtml.htm; Briggs, "Social Characteristics Associated with Ethnocentric Scores of Naval Recruits" (paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Pacific Sociological Society, Los Angeles, June 1952);
85. Briggs, "Social Adaptation among Japanese American Youth: A Comparative Study," Sociology and Social Research 38(5) (1954): 293;
86. Harry A. Wilmer, Social Psychiatry in Action, ix;
87. Henry Greenberg, "People Need People," in ABC: Alcoa Premiere, 10 July 1961, quoted from http://www.pettarchiv.org.uk/pubs-db. riggs-navyhtml.htm.
88. The belief among social critics in postwar America that "open-minded, flexible, autonomous, and creative thinking" constituted the essence of a democratic personality is the subject of a recent dissertation: Jamie Cohen-Cole, "Thinking about Thinking in Cold War America" (PhD diss., Princeton Univ., Princeton, N.J., 2003), iii.
89. Briggs, In Prison (cit. n. 20), 12;
90. Douglas J. Grant, Changing Times and Our Institutions: Participants, Not Recipients (Sacramento, Calif., 1965), 15-6.
91. See, e.g., the essay of Clinton T. Duffy, former warden of San Quentin, "The Prison Problem Nobody Talks about," Los Angeles Times, 21 Oct. 1962, TW 8;
92. California Senate Special Committee on Governmental Administration, Study on Building Needs of State Correctional Institutions, Political, Journal of the Senate, 1955, appendix vol. 1, 23, 32-3.
93. California Fact-Finding Committee on Governmental Administration, Expanded Use of Prison Inmates in the Conservation Program, Journal of the Senate, March 1961, appendix vol. 1, 25-6.
94. Report of the California Senate Committee on Correctional Facilities, Journal of the Senate, March 1961, appendix vol. 1, 82.
95. James Chriss, Counseling and the Therapeutic State (New York, 1999), 21 ;
96. and Erving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (New York, 1961).
97. The anti-institutional community movement in the mental health profession has been addressed by James H. Capshew, Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice, and Professional Identity in America, 1929-1969 (Cambridge, 1999).
98. It has also been noted by criminal justice sociologists. See David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society (Chicago, 2001), 123;
99. Stanley Cohen, Visions of Social Control (Oxford, 1985);
100. and D. R. Karp, Community Justice: An Emerging Field (New York, 1998).
101. Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives (cit. n. 1), 74;
102. Eaton, Stone Walls Not a Prison Make (cit. n. 13), 172;
103. Wilkins and Mannheim had pointed toward using the inmate culture for positive gains. Briggs, Whiteley, and Turner, Dealing with Deviants (cit. n. 11), 104.
104. Briggs, Whiteley, and Turner, Dealing with Deviants (cit. n. 11), 101 ;
105. Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives (cit. n. 1), 75;
106. Dennie Briggs to Milton Burdman, 29 April 1960, F3717:401 Corrections, Conservation Camp Services, CSA.
107. ICE-Statistics 1962-1965, 1 July 1965, 110-1, F3717:635 Corrections, Correctional Program Services, CSA. Over 60 percent of the ITP population was younger than twenty-nine, compared with less than 30 percent in regular camps. In contrast to 45 percent of the regular population, 72 percent of Pilot Rock prisoners were in prison for the first time. Over 80 percent were classified as Caucasian, compared with 55 percent in other camps. Significantly fewer prisoners in Pilot Rock had drug or robbery convictions than elsewhere, but the proportion of check forgers was almost double the camp average. There are no data on. military service records for the general camp population. Dennie Briggs, "A Social-Therapeutic Community in a Correctional Institution: Some Implications for Education," Popular Government (April 1964): 19-24, on 21.
108. Floyd Chamlee, "Administrative Considerations in the Correctional Community," in The Correctional Community: An Introduction and Guide, ed. Norman Fenton, Ernest G. Reimer, and Harry A. Wilmer (Berkeley, Calif., 1967), 29-51, at 32-3;
109. Fred Fromm, The Intensive Treatment Program Phase II: A Condensation of Working Papers, Department of Corrections Research Division, Sacramento, Dec. 1966,10, F3717:351 Corrections, Administration, Reports and Studies, Intensive Treatment Program 1966, CSA.
110. The quotation is from Simon, Poor Discipline (cit. n. 1), 75.
111. Fromm, Intensive Treatment Program Phase II (cit. n. 32), 11;
112. Briggs interview (cit. n. 15);
113. Howard Ohmhart, "Institutional Preparation for the Correctional Community," in The Correctional Community: An Introduction and Guide, ed. Harry Aran Wilmer, Norman Fenton, and Ernest G. Reimer (Berkeley, Calif., 1967), 13-28, on 27;
114. Meeting of Pilot Rock Advisory Committee, May 1960, 3-4, Conservation Camp Services 1955-61, F3717:417 Department of Corrections Records, CSA.
115. Briggs, "A Social-Therapeutic Community in a Correctional Institution" (cit. n. 31), 20.
116. Richard B. Heim, Perceptions and Reactions of Prison Inmates to Two Therapeutic Communities (Sacramento, 1964), 38-9.
117. Maxwell Jones, Beyond the Therapeutic Community: Social Learning and Social Psychiatry (New Haven, Conn., 1968), x;
118. Camp Pilot Rock Proposal, 3 Nov. 1959, 2, 5, Conservation Camp Services 1955-61, F3717:417 Department of Corrections Records, CSA;
119. Chamlee, "Administrative Considerations" (cit. n. 32), 38-42;
120. Untitled document, 26 April 1962, Administration, Suggestions & Complaints 1955-1962, F3717:366 Department of Corrections Records, CSA;
121. Fromm, The Intensive Treatment Program Phase II (cit. n. 32), 12,41;
122. CSA F3717:351 Corrections, Administration, Reports and Studies, Intensive Treatment Program 1966;
123. Grant, Grant, and Briggs, "Personality Integration" (cit. n. 15), 3. The pillow note is quoted in Jones, Beyond the Therapeutic Community, x.
124. Briggs interview (cit. n. 15). Fromm, The Intensive Treatment Program Phase II (cit. n. 32), 45;
125. Glaser, The Effectiveness of a Prison and Parole System (cit. n. 15), observed the low status of laundry and kitchen work in almost all California prisons.
126. Davidson, Chicano Prisoners (cit. n. 11), addresses the variety of rackets that existed in the prison underground economy and its subversion of the official prison economy of maintenance, vocational training, and industries.
127. James W. L. Park, "Visiting Hazard at Camp Don Lugo," 17 Feb. 1961, F3717:401 Corrections, Conservation Camp Services, 1959-1961, CSA.
128. Quoted from the Correctional Officers' log. See Briggs, Whiteley, and Turner, Dealing with Deviants (cit. n. 11), 121-6, on 126.
129. Ibid.; Briggs interview (cit. n. 15); Briggs, In Prison (cit. n. 20).
130. Briggs, In Prison (cit. n. 20), 116-20, 130.
131. Ibid.; Fromm, The Intensive Treatment Program Phase II (cit. n. 32), xv-xvi, 41.
132. Ibid., 18-20; Briggs, "A Social-Therapeutic Community in a Correctional Institution" (cit. n. 31), 21. "Strange indeed," Briggs mused, "to see the experiment grow and mature in a prison, which traditionally, has been and is the antithesis of democracy." Briggs was quite conscious of the relationship between therapeutic treatment and the practice of citizenship. He wrote: "It is interesting that these projects have evolved in prisons with men and women who legally have no 'civil rights'.... They learn the meaning of rights and how to use them effectively for their own as well as the community's good." Briggs, "A Social-Therapeutic Community in a Correctional Institution," 21.
133. Eaton, Stone Walls Not a Prison Make (cit. n. 13), 176.
134. Untitled document, 30 March 1962, Parole Programming, 1961-1965, F3717:320 Corrections Administration California Rehabilitation Center, CSA; Simon, Poor Discipline (cit. n. 1), 91.
135. In 1968, Alfred N. Himelson and Blanche M. Thoma noted the total failure of the drug rehabilitation program that began at Chino in 1960. See Himelson and Thoma, Narcotic Treatment Control Program: Phase Three, Research Report no. 25 Department of Corrections Research Division, Sacramento, Calif., June 1968, ix, where they note: "Men directly released from prison did significantly better on parole than those sent to the Narcotic Treatment Control Unit at CIM prior to their releases on parole."
136. Glaser, Preparing Convicts for Law-Abiding Lives (cit. n. 1), 90.
137. The first phase of PICO had consisted of intensive individual psychoanalytic casework interviewing and changed radically in 1960 under the direction of the new Research Division. Manual of Operations, PICO Phase III, F3717:362 Corrections Administration, Research 1960-1965, CSA;
138. Inmate Staff Community Project Report, 1 July 1962 through 31 Oct. 1962,1-2, in F3717:362 Corrections Administration, Research 1960-1965, CSA.
139. Elliott Studt, Sheldon L. Messinger, and Thomas P. Wilson, C-Unit: Search for Community in Prison (New York, 1968), viii, xv, 7, 81.
140. Ibid., 83-4, 86.
141. PICO III Report, 1 Nov. 1962 through 31 March 1962,2, F3717:362 Corrections Administration, Research 1960-1965, CSA.
142. Inmate Activity Clubs, 1960-1963, F3717:674 Corrections, Correctional Program Services, Central Files, CSA. James P. Alexander, "Information Bulletin: Muslim Cult in Prisons," 3 April 1961, F3717:336 Corrections Administration, Meetings, Misc., 1961, CSA. Milton Burdman to Director McGee, 16 Aug. 1960, Projects 7 Programs, Incidents inFolsom, 1949-1960, F3717:588 Corrections, Correctional Program Services, CSA. A.B. 61/40 Islamic Literature, 4 April 1961, Administrative Bulletin, 1961, F3717:1387 Corrections, Administration, CSA.
143. "Promoting Equal Opportunity," Admin. Bulletin 69/21, 27 May 1969, F3717, CSA; Alexander, "Information Bulletin: Muslim Cult in Prisons" (cit. n. 49).
144. Richard A. McGee, Prisons and Politics (Lexington, Mass., 1981), 72.
145. Ruth Wilson Gilmore, "Globalisation and US Prison Growth: From Military Keynesianism to Post-Keynesian Militarism," in Race and Class 40(2-3) (1998-1999): 171-88;
146. Richard A. Berk, Harold Brackman, and Selma Lesser, A Measure of Justice: An Empirical Study of Changes in the California Penal Code, 1955-1971 (New York, 1977), 53.
147. "State Unlocks Prisons to Rehabilitate Criminals," Oakland Tribune, 8 Aug. 1965, 1-3.
148. Pride in the institution's scientific and professional leadership pervaded much of the press coverage on California corrections in the first half of the 1960s. "The entire nation has only 50 prison psychiatrists," the Tribune reported in its Aug. 8 article, adding proudly that "California has half of them." "Convicts Break with Tradition," Oakland Tribune, 9 Aug. 1965, 1-2;
149. Matthew Dallek, "Liberalism Overthrown," American Heritage 47(6) (1996): 39-52;
150. Robert J. Minton Jr., ed., Inside: Prison American Style (New York, 1967), 75;
151. Walter Lear Gordon, "Political, Ideological, and Institutional Aspects of Comprehensive Criminal Law Reform in California: 1960-1975" (PhD diss., Univ. of California, Los Angeles, 1981).
152. Berk, Brackman, and Lesser, A Measure of Justice (cit. n. 52), 56.
153. The decisive signal that correctional welfare and therapeutic corrections were in decline, remembered John Irwin, "was the abandonment of many programs in progress or in the planning stages after Governor Reagan took office in 1967." Irwin, The Felon (cit. n. 8), 53;
154. A. James Reichly, "Ronald Reagan Faces Life," Fortune, July 1967, 98-157;
155. California Crime Technological Research Foundation (Sacramento, 1967); California Specialized Training Institute (Sacramento, 1968).