Human rights and development: Some institutional perspectives

Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 459-504

  McInerney Lankford, Siobhán ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 35148863052     PISSN: 01693441     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/016934410702500304     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. See e.g. Robinson, M. and Alston, P., 'The Challenges of Ensuring the Mutuality of Human Rights and Development Endeavours', in: Robinson, M. and Alston, P. (eds), Human Rights and Development: Towards Mutual Reinforcement, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005 Chapter 1, pp. 11-18.
2. Marks, S. and Clapham, A., International Human Rights Lexicon, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005, p. 91.
3. Petersmann, E.U., 'Human Rights and International Economic Law in the 21st Century: The Need to Clarify Their Interrelationships', Journal of International Economic Law, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2001, pp. 3-39.
4. Buergenthal, T., 'The Normative and Institutional Evolution of International Human Rights', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 4, 1997, pp. 703-723;
5. Nowak, M., Introduction to the International Human Rights Regime, Raoul Wallenberg Institute Human Rights Library; Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, 2003;
6. Cranston, M., What are Human Rights?, Taplinger Publishing Co., New York, 1973;
7. Donnelly, J., The Concept of Human Rights, Croom Helm, London, 1985;
8. Donnelly, J., Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, 2003.
9. See further, Tomuschat, C., Human Rights: Between Idealism and Realism, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003;
10. Siegert, P., The Lawful Rights of Mankind, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986;
11. Falk, R., 'Theoretical Foundations of Human Rights', in: Claude, R.P. and Weston, B.H. (eds), Human Rights in the World Community, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 2nd ed., 1992, pp. 31-40;
12. and Alston, P., Human Rights Law, Dartmouth Publishing, Aldershot, 1996.
13. Steiner, H. and Alston, P., International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2nd ed., 2000, 3rd ed. forthcoming 2007.
14. Morsink, J., The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1999.
15. The 'seven core treaties' sponsored by the United Nations include: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR); the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD); the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW); the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT); the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC); and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (MWC), www.ohchr.org/english/law/index.htm.
16. See also the recently approved Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), 2006 www.un.org/disabilities/convention/about.shtml and the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons From Enforced Disappearances, 2007.
17. For a comprehensive collection of the sources of human rights law, including regional and specialised sources, as well as treaty and non-treaty sources, see Brownlie, I. and Goodwin-Gill, G., Basic Documents on Human Rights, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 5th ed., 2006.
18. Sohn, L. and Buergenthal, T., International Protection of Human Rights, Bobbs-Merils, Indianapolis, 1973;
19. Buergenthal, T., Shelton, D. and Stewart, D.P., International Human Rights in a Nutshell, West Group, St. Paul, 3rd ed., 2002.
20. See also UN Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, UN Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.8, 8 May 2006, United Nations, Geneva.
21. Meron, T., Human rights and humanitarian norms as customary law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1991.
22. Orakhelashvili, A., Peremptory Norms in International Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006.
23. Simma, B. and Alston, P., 'The Sources of Human Rights Law: Custom, Jus Cogens and General Principles, Australian Year Book of International Law, Vol. 12, 1992, pp. 82-108;
24. Ragazzi, M., International obligations Erga Omnes, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1997;
25. Fawcett, J.E.S., 'The International Protection of Human Rights, in: Raphael, D.D. (ed.), Political Theory and the Rights of Man, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and London, 1967.
26. Shachter, O., 'Human Dignity as a Normative Concept', American Journal of International Law, Vol. 77, No. 4, 1983, at pp. 848-954.
27. Berting, J. et al. (eds), Human Rights in a Pluralist World: Individuals and Collectivities, Meckler, London/Westport, 1990;
28. Clapham, A., Human Rights in the Private Sphere, Clarendon, Oxford, 1993;
29. McInerney, S., 'The European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the Evolution of Fundamental Rights in the "Private Domain", in: Harding, C. and Lim, C. (eds), Essays and Commentary on the European and Conceptual Foundations of Modern International Law, Kluwer Publishing, The Hague, 1999, pp. 277-320;
30. Clapham, A., Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006;
31. Hodgson, D., Individual Duty Within a Human Rights Discourse, Ashgate, Aldershot, 2004, p. 1;
32. Alston, P. (ed.), Non-State Actors and Human Rights, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005.
33. On duty and the language of responsibility in American rights discourse, see Glendon, M.A., Rights talk: the Impoverishment of Political Discourse, Free Press, New York, 1991.
34. On the horizontal application of the ICCPR, see Joseph, S., Schutz, J. and Castan, M., The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Cases, Materials and Commentary, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2004, pp. 35-39.
35. Brysk, A. (ed.), Globalization and Human Rights, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2002.
36. See also, Ishay, M., The History of Human Rights: From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era, University of California Press, Berkeley, 2004, especially pp. 256-263;
37. and Englehart, N., Nathan, A.J., Monshipouri, M. and Philip, K. (eds), Constructing Human Rights in the Age of Globalization, ME Sharpe, London, 2003.
38. Alston, P., 'Ships Passing in the Night: The Current State of the Human Rights and Development Debate seen through the Lens of the Millennium Development Goals', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 3, 2005, pp. 755-829.
39. See also Nowak, M., 'A Human Rights Approach to Poverty, in: Scheinin, M. and Suksi, Markku (eds), Human Rights in Development Yearbook 2002 Empowerment, Participation, Accountabilty and non-discrimination: Operationalizing a Human Rights-Based Approach to Development, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden/Boston and Nordic Human Rights Publications, Oslo, 2005, pp. 17-35.
40. See Brodnig, G., The World Bank and Human Rights: Mission Impossible?, Carr Center for Human Rights Working Policy, Working Paper T-01-05, Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, 2001, in which, he argues that human rights have become part of the Bank's mandate, basing this argument in part on practice as a central organising principle for the interpretation of its Articles of Agreement.
41. Darrow, M., Between Light and Shadow: The World Bank, the IMF and International Human Rights Law, Hart Publishing, Portland, 2003, pp. 53-64.
42. Wahi, N., 'Human Rights Accountability of the IMPF and the World Bank: A Critique of Existing Mechanisms and Articulation of a Theory of Horizontal Accountability', UC Davis International Law & Policy, Vol. 12, 2005-2006, pp. 331-407, at p. 332.
43. OECD DAC, Integrating Human Rights Into Development, Donor Approaches, Experiences and Challenges, OECD, Paris, 2006.
44. E.g., UNDP, Integrating human rights with sustainable human development, UNDP, New York, 1998.
45. E.g., World Bank Social Development Strategy Paper'Social Development in World Bank Operations: Results and Way Forward', World Bank, Washington DC, 2004;
46. Indigenous Peoples Policy O.P. 4.20, 1004, available at: http:// go.worldbank.org/DIGEVPWG0;
47. and IFC, 'Policy on Social and Environmental Sustainability and its Performance Standards', World Bank Group, Washington DC, 2006 available at: www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/SustainabilityPolicy.
48. E.g., Operational Policy O.P. 1.00 on Poverty Reduction, which reflects the current framework of the World Bank's poverty reduction mandate and business procedures, available at: http:// go.worldbank.org/0K895K0TV Also July 2004 Guidance Note on Poverty Assessments, available at: http://go.worldbank.org/93DUQV8OR;
49. and October 2004 Background Note on the objectives behind the revision of the operational policy. See also WDR 2000-2001 Attacking Poverty, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000;
50. World Bank, Washington DC. The Bank's support of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (now referred to as 'PRS') since 1999 is also significant. On Poverty Reduction Strategies, see World Bank PRS Sourcebook, World Bank, Washington, 2004;
51. 2005 Joint World Bank/IMF PRS Review: Balancing Accountabilities and Scaling Up Results, available at: http://go.worldbank.org/815EOPWMZ0. On Poverty Social Impact Analysis (PSIA) tool, The World Bank, A User's Guide to Poverty and Social Impact Analysis, World Bank, Washington DC, 2003;
52. and Coudouel, A., Dani, A. and Paternostro, S. (eds), Poverty and Social Impact Analysis of Reforms: Lessons and Examples of Implementation, World Bank, Washington DC, 2006;
53. OECD/DAC Guidelines and Poverty Reduction, 2001, www.oecd.org/ document/1/0,3343,en_2649_34621_1885953_1_1_1_1,00.html;
54. and UNDP, Overcoming Human Poverty, UNDP, New York, 2000.
55. See e.g., World Bank, Comprehensive Development Framework, World Bank, Washington DC, 1999, which emphasises an integral approach and the 'two dimensions of development': 'The macroeconomic aspects on the one side, and the social, structural and human on the other, must be considered together'. The Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF). is often traced to President Wolfensohn's Annual Meetings speech,The Challenge of Inclusion, in Hong Kong in the fall of 1997, in which he outlined a vision of the Bank as an institution committed to forging closer partnerships with other actors to enhance development effectiveness. For the history, principles and current developments of the CDF, including the 2004 CDF Staff Guide, see http://go.worldbank.org/ XGSS2YTHJO.
56. See also, Inter-American Development Bank Articles of Agreement, Article 1, Section 1, www.iadb.org/leg/Documents/Pdf/Convenio-Eng.Pdf;
57. and the Asian Development Bank proclamation of poverty reduction as its primary goal, www.adb.org/Poverty/default.asp.
58. See e.g. Narayan, D., Voices of the Poor, Can anyone hear us?, Vol. I, World Bank, Washington DC, 2000;
59. Voices of the Poor: Crying Out for Change, Vol. II, World Bank, Washington DC, 2000;
60. Narayan, D. and Petesch, P., Voices of the Poor: From Many Lands, Vol. III, published for the World Bank, Oxford University Press, New York, 2001;
61. Narayan, D., Empowerment and Poverty Reduction: A Sourcebook, World Bank, Washington DC, 2002;
62. and from a different perspective, see the work of the High Level Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor, which began in January 2006. Launching documents and Commission Documents available at: www. Undp.org/legalempowerment/reports/concept2action.html.
63. World Bank, 'Comprehensive Development Framework Earlier', see President Robert McNamara, Address to the Meeting of the Board of Governors Copenhagen, Denmark, 21 September 1970 as quoted in: Mason, E. and Asher, R., The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, Brookings Institution, Washington DC, 1973, at p. 475: '[We] believe that economic progress remains precarious and sterile without corresponding social improvement. Full human development demands attention to both. We intend, in the Bank, to give attention to both.'
64. E.g., Saith, A., 'From Universal Values to Millennium Development Goals: Lost in Translation', Development and Change, Vol. 37, No. 6, 2006, pp. 1167-1199.
65. E.g., UN Millennium Project Report, Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals, UN, New York, 2005, at: www.unmillenniumproject.org/reports/fullreport.htm. 'Another strategy is to use national and international human rights accountability mechanisms. This can complement the efforts of national economic and finance ministries to monitor progress toward the Goals'(p. 108);
66. 'To ensure the Goals are applied in a manner consistent with human rights, governments need to recognize the relevance of their human rights obligations, encourage community participation, and develop human rights-based accountability mechanisms' (p. 118).
67. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Righting the MDGs, UN, Geneva, forthcoming 2007, at p. 13.
68. An early linkage between development and human rights can be found in the 1969 Tehran Declaration's proclamation of the right to development. The International Conference on Human Rights held in Tehran from 22 April to 13 May 1968 expressed its belief 'that the enjoyment of economic and social rights is inherently linked with any meaningful and profound interconnection between the realization of human rights and economic development'. The right to development was made explicit in the 1986 Declaration on the Right to Development. Resolution 41/117/128, 4 December 1986, and reaffirmed in several later Resolutions 32/130, 16 December 1977;
69. Resolution 40/114, 13 December 1985;
70. and in the Vienna Declaration and Program of Action, UNGA A/CONF.157/23, 12 July 1993 as well as in the 2000 Millennium Declaration, www.un.org/ millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm.
71. For commentary, see Ramcharan, B. (ed.), Thirty Years After the Universal Declaration, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1979;
72. Rich, R.Y., 'The Right to Development as an emerging Human Right', Virginia Journal of International Law, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1983, pp. 287-328;
73. and the recent work of the High Level Task Force on the Right to Development within the UN on which the World Bank has been represented www.ohchr.org/english/issues/development/groups/index.htm.
74. UNDP, Integrating human rights with sustainable development A UNDP policy document, UNDP, New York, 1998;
75. UNDP, Human Development Report 2000 Human rights and human development, UNDP, New York, 2000, which argued that human rights formed an intrinsic part of development and that development should be viewed as a means to realising human rights.
76. See also UNDP, Human Rights and Development Practice Note, UNDP, New York, 2003;
77. UNDP, A Human Rights Approach to Development - Primer for Development Practitioners (Amparo Tomas) August 2003, UNDP, New York. Endorsement of the critical links between human rights and development has come also from the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 'Statement by Ms. Louise Arbour, High Commissioner for Human Rights to the Open-Ended Working Group established by the Commission on Human Rights to consider options regarding the elaboration of an optional protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2004', available at: www.ohchr.org/english/issues/escr/group.htm.
78. Darrow, op.cit. (note 16);
79. and Horta, K., 'Rhetoric and Reality: Human Rights and the World Bank, Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 15, 2002, pp. 227-243.
80. Donnelly, J., 'Human Rights, Democracy, and Development', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1999, pp. 608-632, at p. 629.
81. Donnelly, J., 'Human Rights and Development: Complementary or Competing Concerns, World Politics, Vol. 36, No. 2, 1984, pp. 255-283.
82. Darrow, M. and Tomas, A., 'Power, Capture and Conflict: A Call for Human Rights Accountability in Development Cooperation, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2005, pp. 471-538;
83. and Clark, D., 'The World Bank and Human Rights: The Need for Greater Accountability', Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 15, Spring 2002, pp. 205-226.
84. Auguirre, D., 'Restricted Development: The entrenchment of Structural Adjustment and Human Rights Law, Sri Lanka Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, 2006, pp. 1-21.
85. Skogly, S., The Human Rights Obligations of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, Cavendish Press, London, 2001;
86. Bradlow, D., 'The World Bank, the IMF and human rights', Transnational law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1996, pp. 48-89;
87. Bradlow, D. and Grossman, C., 'Limited mandates and intertwined problems: a new challenge for the World Bank and the IMF, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 3,1995, pp. 411-442;
88. Darrow, op.cit. (note 16);
89. and Van Genugten, W., Hunt, P. and Mathews, S., World Bank, IMF and Human Rights, Wolf Legal Publishers, Nijmegen, 2003.
90. Hernández Uriz, G., 'To Lend or Not To Lend: Oil, Human Rights, and the World Bank's Internal Contradictions, Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol. 14, Spring 2001, pp. 197-231.
91. For a sophisticated treatment of the issues and diagnosis of the problems related to bringing together human rights and global investment concerns, see e.g., Leader, S., 'Human Rights, Risks and New Strategies for Global Investment', Journal of international Economic Law, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2006, pp. 657-703.
92. E.g. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, The World Bank: Governance and Human Rights, Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, New York, 1995.
93. E.g., Fox, J. and Brown, L. David, (eds), The Struggle for Accountability: The World Bank, NGOs and Grassroots Movements, Global Environmental Accord: Strategies for Sustainability and Institutional Innovation, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1998;
94. Wahi, N., 'Human Rights Accountability of the IMF and the World Bank: A Critique of Existing Mechanisms and Articulation of a Theory of Horizontal Accountability', UC Davis International Law & Policy, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2005-2006, pp. 331-407, at p. 332.
95. Alston, loc.cit. (note 14);
96. Robinson and Alston (eds), op.cit. (note 1), especially Introduction chapter 1 'The Challenges of Ensuring the Mutuality of Human Rights and Development', pp. 1-18;
97. Darrow and Tomas, loc.cit. (note 33);
98. and Decker, K., McInerney-Lankford, S., and Sage, C., Human Rights and Equitable Development: 'ideals', issues and implications Background paper to the WDR 2006 available under 'Background papers' at: http://go.worldbank.org/UWYLBR43C0.
99. OECD-DAC Govnet, Integrating Human Rights Into Development, Donor Approaches, Experiences and Challenges, OECD, Paris, 2006, at pp. 25-36.
100. OHCHR, op.cit. (note 27).
101. See e.g., the title and theme of Robinson and Alston (eds), op. cit. (note 1).
102. The World Bank's official position offers its own qualified recognition of this also: 'The world now accepts that sustainable development is impossible without human rights, What has been missing is the recognition that the advancement of an interconnected set of human rights is impossible without development! World Bank, Development and Human Rights: The Role of the World Bank, World Bank, Washington DC, 1998, p. 2.
103. http://portal.unesco.org/shs/en/ ev.php-URL_ID=7733&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.
104. www.unmillenniumproject.org/ (the 'Sachs Report').
105. Report of the Secretary-General entitled 'Strengthening of the United Nations: an agenda for further change', UN Doc. A/57/387, 9 September 2002, from which the strengthening and mainstreaming of human rights in the UN has come to be known as 'Action 2'. 'Action 2' related to Strengthening UN Support for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Worldwide. www.un.org/events/action2/.
106. www.un.org/largerfreedom/.
107. E.g., UNDP, Human Rights in UNDP Practice Note, UNDP, New York, 2005.
108. OHCHR, op.cit. (note 27).
109. A similar approach was articulated by the then General Counsel, Ibrahim Shihata, 'The World Bank and Human Rights - A Presentation before the 1993 UN World Conference on Human Rights', in: World Bank Legal Papers, Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, 2000, at pp. 815-817 in which he states: 'My purpose today is to highlight the contribution of the World bank to the promotion of human rights, to emphasize the complementarity of the respect for human rights and human development in general, and to indicate briefly the limitation placed on the Bank's activities with respect to political matters' (p. 815).
110. World Bank, Development and Human Rights: the Role of the World Bank, World Bank, Washington DC, 1998, available at: www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/rights/hrtext.pdf.
111. Ibidem, p. 3.
112. 'The Bank's operations attempt in fact to help its borrowers to transform the economic and social rights proclaimed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights from ideals into realities...' Shihata, loc.cit. (note 51), at p. 816.
113. World Bank, op.cit. (note 51).
114. Dañino, R., 'Legal Aspects of the World Bank's Work on Human Rights: Some Preliminary Thoughts', in: Robinson and Alston (eds), op.cit. (note 1), pp. 509-524, at p. 517.
115. Shihata, I.F.I., 'Political Activity Prohibited, in: World Bank Legal Papers, op.cit. (note 50), Chapter 9, pp. 219-244, at p. 233.
116. Also relevant in this context is Shihata, I., 'Human Rights and Development', in: Shihata, I., The World Bank in a Changing World: Selected Essays and Lectures Volume II, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1995, pp. 567-579.
117. This is most apparent in claims that the World Bank contributes to the protection and promotion of human rights, see e.g. Shihata, 'Human Rights and Development, loc.cit. (note 56), at p. 567.
118. On 'rhetorical incorporation', see Uvin, P., Human Rights and Development, Kumarian Press, Bloomfield, 2004, at p. 50.
119. See http://go.worldbank.org/72L95K8TN0.
120. Idem.
121. Thus, the HDR 2000, op.cit. (note 29), demonstrated how the human rights framework brings principles of accountability and social justice to the process of human development. It also argues for a more integrated view of human rights and human development.
122. On the centrality of participation to a rights based approach (RBA) to development, the OHCHR makes the following observation, 'Rights-based approaches require a high degree of participation, including from communities, civil society, minorities, indigenous peoples, women and others. According to the UN Declaration on the Right to Development, such participation must be "active, free and meaningful" so that mere formal or "ceremonial" contacts with beneficiaries are not sufficient.' www.unhchr.ch/development/approaches-04.html.
123. See also Frankovits, A. and Earle, P. (The Human Rights Council of Australia), The Rights Way to Development - Manual for A Human Rights Approach to Development Assistance, Human Rights Council of Australia, Sydney, 2nd ed., 1996, p. 117.
124. 'Good governance is indispensable to the realization of human rights in general...' Hamm, B., 'A Human Rights Approach to Development', Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2001, pp. 1005-1031.
125. World Bank, Governance: The World Bank's Experience, World Bank, Washington DC, 1994;
126. Shihata, I.F.I., 'Issues of "Governance" in Borrowing Members - the Extent of their Relevance Under the Bank's Articles of Agreement', in: World Bank Legal Papers, op.cit. (note 50), at pp. 245-282, addressing aspects of governance consistent with the Bank's mandate at pp 272-274;
127. and Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A. and Mastruzzi, M. Governance Matters IV: New Data and New Challenges, World Bank, Washington DC, 2005.
128. Sen, A., Development as Freedom, Anchor Books, New York, 1999.
129. www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.
130. Sen, op. cit. (note 64), who describes the range of determinants or factors that can violate freedoms, from economic poverty, to lack of public facilities and social care to denials of political and civil liberties, Introduction, especially pp. 3-4.
131. An example of this is UNDP's concept of sustainable human development which has five aspects: empowerment, cooperation, equity, sustainability and security; UNDP, Governance for Sustainable Development: A UNDP Policy Document, UNDP, New York, 1997.
132. See also generally, Alessina, A. and Perotti, R., 'The Political Economy of Growth: A Critical Survey of the Recent Literature', World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1994, pp. 351-371.
133. For research suggesting a link between the quality of institutions and investment and growth, see Aron, J., 'Growth and Institutions: A Review of the Evidence', World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2000, pp. 99-135.
134. For other research on related issues, see Isham, M.J., Kaufmann, D. and Pritchett, L.H., 'Civil Liberties, Democracy and the Performance of Government Projects', World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1997, pp. 219-242.
135. See also, Baerji, A. and Ghanem, H., 'Does the Type of Political Regime Matter for Trade and Labor Market Policies?', World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1997, pp. 171-194;
136. Barro, R.J., 'Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries', The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 106, No. 2, 1991, pp. 407-443, at p. 432;
137. and Barro, R., Determinants of Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Empirical Study, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1997.