Cost-effectiveness of alternative strategies for initiating and monitoring highly active antiretroviral therapy in the developing world

Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes

Volumn 46, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 91-100

  Vijayaraghavan, Arthi ^a,d   Efrusy, Molly Bates ^a   Mazonson, Peter D ^a   Ebrahim, Osman ^b   Sanne, Ian M ^c   Santas, Christopher C ^a  

^a Mosaic Health Care Consultants   (United States)

^b Brenthurst Clinic   (South Africa)

^c UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

^d NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cost effectiveness; Developing countries; Guidelines; Highly active antiretroviral therapy; Transmission; Viral load

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; DIDANOSINE; EFAVIRENZ; LAMIVUDINE; LOPINAVIR PLUS RITONAVIR; NEVIRAPINE; STAVUDINE; TENOFOVIR;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CONTROLLED STUDY; COST; COST CONTROL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ECONOMIC ASPECT; FEMALE; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; LIFE EXPECTANCY; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROBABILITY; QUALITY ADJUSTED LIFE YEAR; QUALITY OF LIFE; SEXUAL TRANSMISSION; SEXUALITY; SOUTH AFRICA; SURVIVAL; VIRUS LOAD; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

ADULT; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, HIGHLY ACTIVE; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; HEALTH CARE COSTS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MARKOV CHAINS; MODELS, ECONOMIC; MONTE CARLO METHOD; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SOUTH AFRICA; UNITED STATES; UNITED STATES DEPT. OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 34848901110     PISSN: 15254135     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181342564     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. Boerma JT, Stanecki KA, Newell ML, et al. Monitoring the scale-up of antiretroviral therapy programmes: methods to estimate coverage. Bull World Health Organ. 2006;84:145-150.
2. World Health Organization and Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS. Treating 3 Million by 2005: Making It Happen. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2003. Available at: http://www.who.int/3by5/publications/documents/en/ 3by5StrategyMakingItHappen.pdf. Accessed April 28, 2006.
3. World Health Organization (WHO). Scaling Up Antiretroviral Therapy in Resource-Limited Settings: Treatment Guidelines for a Public Health Approach, 2003 revision. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2004. Available at: http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/prev_care/en/arvrevision2003en.pdf. Accessed April 28, 2006.
4. Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Bethesda, MD: Department of Health and Human Services; October 6, 2005. Available at: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/ AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed March 6, 2006.
5. Cozzi Lepri A, Phillips AN, d'Arminio Monforte A, et al. When to start highly active antiretroviral therapy in chronically HIV-infected patients: evidence from the ICONA study. AIDS. 2001;15:983-990.
6. Gold MR, Siegel JE, Russell LB, et al. Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996.
7. Auvert B, Males S, Puren A, et al. Can highly active antiretroviral therapy reduce the spread of HIV: a study in a township of South Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;36:613-621.
8. French N, Mujugira A, Nakiyingi J, et al. Immunologic and clinical stages in HIV-1-infected Ugandan adults are comparable and provide no evidence of rapid progression but poor survival with advanced disease. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999;22:509-516.
9. Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, et al, for the Rakai Project Study Group. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunode-ficiency virus type I. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:921-929.
10. Hammer SM, Squires KE, Hughes MD, et al, for the AIDS Clinical Trials Group 320 Study Team. A controlled trial of two nucleoside analogues plus indinavir in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection and CD4 counts of 200 per cubic millimeter or less. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:725-733.
11. Bini T, Testa L, Chiesa E, et al. Outcome of a second-line protease inhibitor-containing regimen in patients failing or intolerant of a first highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000;24:115-122.
12. Cook J, Dasbach E, Coplan P, et al. Modelling the long-term outcomes and costs of HIV antiretroviral therapy using HIV RNA levels: application to a clinical trial. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1999;15:499-508.
13. Sanders GD, Bayoumi AM, Sundaram V, et al. Cost-effectiveness of screening for HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:570-585.
14. Gallant JE, Staszewski S, Pozniak AL, et al, for the 903 Study Group. Efficacy and safety of tenofovir DF vs stavudine in combination therapy in antiretroviral-naïve patients: a 3-year randomized trial. JAMA. 2004;292:191-201.
15. Deeks SG, Hecht FM, Swanson M, et al. HIV RNA and CD4 cell count response to protease inhibitor therapy in an urban AIDS clinic: response to both initial and salvage therapy. AIDS. 1999;13:F35-F43.
16. Le Moing V, Chene G, Carrieri MP, et al. Predictors of virological rebound in HIV-1-infected patients initiating a protease inhibitor-containing regimen. AIDS. 2002;16:21-29.
17. Hughes MD, Johnson VA, Hirsch MS, et al, for the ACTG 241 Protocol Virology Substudy Team. Monitoring plasma HIV-1 RNA levels in addition to CD4+ lymphocyte count improves assessment of antiretroviral therapeutic response. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:929-938.
18. Mellors JW, Munoz A, Giorgi JV, et al. Plasma viral load and CD4+ lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126:946-954.
19. Vlahov D, Graham N, Hoover D, et al. Prognostic indicators for AIDS and infectious disease death in HIV-infected injection drug users: plasma viral load and CD4+ cell count. JAMA. 1998;279:35-40.
20. Collaborative Group on AIDS Incubation and HIV Survival, including the CASCADE EU Concerted Action. Concerted Action on SeroConversion to AIDS and Death in Europe. Time from HIV-1 seroconversion to AIDS and death before widespread use of highly-active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative re-analysis. Lancet. 2000;355:1131-1137.
21. Morgan D, Mahe C, Mayanja B, et al. HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? AIDS. 2002;16:597-603.
22. Bourgeois A, Laurent C, Mougnutou R, et al. Field assessment of generic antiretroviral drugs: a prospective cohort study in Cameroon. Antivir Ther. 2005;10:335-341.
23. Coetzee D, Hildebrand K, Boulle A, et al. Outcomes after two years of providing antiretroviral treatment in Khayelitsha, South Africa. AIDS. 2004;18:887-895.
24. Laurent C, Diakhate N, Gueye NF, et al. The Senegalese government's highly active antiretroviral therapy initiative: an 18-month follow-up study. AIDS. 2002;16:1363-1370.
25. Coetzee D, Boulle A, Hildebrand K, et al. Promoting adherence to antiretroviral therapy: the experience from a primary care setting in Khayelitsha, South Africa. AIDS. 2004;18(Suppl 3):S27-S31.
26. Buve A, Carael M, Hayes RJ, et al, for the Study Group on Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. Multicentre study on factors determining differences in rate of spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: methods and prevalence of HIV infection. AIDS. 2001;15(Suppl 4):S5-S14.
27. Buve A, Lagarde E, Carael M, et al, for the Study Group on Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. Interpreting sexual behavior data: validity issues in the multicentre study on factors determining the differential spread of HIV in four African cities. AIDS. 2001;15(Suppl 4):S117-S126.
28. Ferry B, Carael M, Buve A, et al, for the Study Group on the Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities. Comparison of key parameters of sexual behaviour in four African urban populations with different levels of HIV infection. AIDS. 2001;15(Suppl 4):S41-S50.
29. Shisana O, Rehle T, Simbayi LC, et al. South African National HIV Prevalence, HIV Incidence, Behaviour and Communication Survey, 2005. Cape Town, South Africa: HSRC Press; 2005. Available at: http://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/ freedownload.asp?id=2134. Accessed April 28, 2006.
30. Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). 2004 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva, Switzerland: UNAIDS; June 2004. Available at: http://www.unaids.org/bangkok2004/GAR2004_pdf/GAR2004_table_countryestimates_en. pdf. Accessed March 8, 2006.
31. Council for Medical Schemes (CMS). South Africa. National Health Reference Price List (NHRPL), 2006. Available at: www.medicalschemes. com. Accessed November 4, 2005.
32. Cleary S, Boulle A, McIntyre D, et al. Cost-Effectiveness of Antiretroviral Treatment for HIV-Positive Adults in a South African Township. Cape Town, South Africa: Health Systems Trust, Medecins Sans Frontieres, University of Cape Town; March 2004. Available at: http://www.epi.uct.ac.za/. Accessed March 13, 2006.
33. Bozzette SA, Joyce G, McCaffrey DF, et al. Expenditures for the care of HIV-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:817-823.
34. National Department of Health, South Africa. National Antiretroviral Treatment Guidelines. Johannesburg, South Africa: Jacana; 2004. Available at: http://www.doh.gov.za/docs/factsheets/guidelines/artguidelines04/. Accessed March 6, 2006.
35. Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF). Untangling the Web of Price Reductions: a Pricing Guide for the Purchase of ARVs for Developing Countries, 8th ed. MSF, Geneva, Switerland; June 2005. Available at: www.accessmed-msf. org. Accessed December 2, 2005.
36. Rosen S, Vincent JR, MacLeod W, et al. The cost of HIV/AIDS to businesses in southern Africa. AIDS. 2004;18:317-324.
37. Tan-Torres Edejer T, Baltussen R, Adam T, et al, eds. Making Choices in Health: WHO Guide to Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003.
38. The World Bank Group. Country groups, 2006. Available at: http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,contentMDK: 20420458~menuPK:64133156~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html. Accessed April 21, 2006.
39. Dorrington R, Bradshaw D, Budlender D, et al. The current state and future projections of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa. SADJ. 2002;57:449-450.
40. Casado JL, Perez-Elias MJ, Antela A, et al. Predictors of long-term response to protease inhibitor therapy in a cohort of HIV-infected patients. AIDS. 1998;12:F131-F135.
41. International Monetary Fund, South Africa. Staff Report for the 2005 Article IV Consultation. Pretoria and Cape Town, South Africa: International Monetary Fund; 2005. Available at: http://www.finance.gov.za/documents/imf/ 2005/. Accessed November 14, 2005.
42. Ojo K, Delaney M. Economic and demographic consequences of AIDS in Namibia: rapid assessment of the costs. Int J Health Plann Manage. 1997;12:315-326.
43. Oanda Corp. Fx historical currency converter. Available at: http://www.oanda.com/convert/fxhistory. Accessed March 20, 2006.
44. Wilson D, Purushothaman R. Dreaming with BRICs: the path to 2050. Goldman Sachs Global Economics Paper No. 99. October 1, 2003. Available at: http://www.gs.com/insight/research/reports/report6.html. Accessed March 16, 2006.
45. World Health Organization Statistical Information System (WHOSIS). Life table for South Africa, 2001. Available at: http://www3.who.int/whosis/menu.cfm? path=whosis,life&language=english. Accessed March 13, 2006.
46. Forsythe S. How does HIV/AIDS affect African businesses? In: State of the Art: AIDS and Economics. POLICY Project, Washington, DC, and Merck & Company; 2002:30-37. Available at: http://www.iaen.org/library/statepidemic/ chapter5.pdf. Accessed April 28, 2006.
47. World Health Organization (WHO). Macroeconomics and Health: Investing in Health for Economic Development: Report of the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2001. Available at: http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cidcmh/CMHReport.pdf. Accessed April 28, 2006.
48. Murray CJ, Lauer JA, Hutubessy RC, et al. Effectiveness and costs of interventions to lower systolic blood pressure and cholesterol: a global and regional analysis on reduction of cardiovascular-disease risk. Lancet. 2003;361:717-725.
49. The World Bank Group. South African data profile from World Development Indicators database, August 2005. Available at: http://devdata.worldbank.org/ external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=ZAF. Accessed March 13, 2006.
50. Braitstein P, Brinkhof MWG, Dabis F, et al, for the Antiretroviral Therapy in Lower Income Countries (ART-LINC) Collaboration. ART Cohort Collaboration (ART-CC). Mortality of HIV-1-infected patients in the first year of antiretroviral therapy: comparison between low-income and highincome countries. Lancet. 2006;367:817-824.
51. Lawn SD, Myer L, Orrell C, et al. Early mortality among adults accessing a community-based antiretroviral service in South Africa: implications for programme design. AIDS. 2005;19:2141-2148.
52. Merito M, Pezzotti P, for the ICONA Study Group. Comparing costs and effectiveness of different starting points for highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive patients: evidence from the ICONA cohort. Eur J Health Econ. 2006;7:30-36.
53. Shelburne SA, Montes M, Hamill RJ. Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: more answers, more questions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;57:167-170.
54. Wood E, Hogg RS, Yip B, et al. Impact of baseline viral load and adherence on survival of HIV-infected adults with baseline CD4 cell counts ≥200 cells/μl. AIDS. 2006;20:1117-1123.
55. Castilla J, del Romero J, Hernando V, et al. Effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral therapy in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;40:96-101.
56. Bachmann MO. Effectiveness and cost effectiveness of early and late prevention of HIV/AIDS progression with antiretrovirals or antibiotics in Southern African adults. AIDS Care. 2006;18:109-120.
57. Badri M, Cleary S, Maartens G, et al. When to initiate highly active antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa? A South African costeffectiveness study. Antivir Ther. 2006;11:63-72.
58. Bogaards JA, Jan Weverling G, Zwinderman AH, et al. Plasma HIV-1 RNA to guide patient selection for antiretroviral therapy in resource-poor settings: efficiency related to active case finding. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:232-237.