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Volumn 81, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 511-532

Erwin H. Ackerknecht, social medicine, and the history of medicine

Author keywords

Contextualism; Disease; Erwin H. Ackerknecht; George Rosen; Gestalt; Henry Sigerist; Malaria; Owsei Temkin; Relativism; Rudolf Virchow; Ruth Benedict

Indexed keywords


EID: 34848857643     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2007.0087     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (23)

References (104)
  • 1
    • 34848909153 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Which he called primitive medicine, in the accepted usage of the time.
    • Which he called "primitive medicine," in the accepted usage of the time.
  • 2
    • 34848854036 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Erwin H. Ackerknecht (hereafter EHA) to Henry Sigerist, 25 September 1945, Sigerist Papers, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (It should be noted that there are collections of Sigerist's correspondence at both Johns Hopkins and Yale Universities.) EHA was a popular lecturer and in Wisconsin spoke to a variety of groups around the state: one can't easily refuse, he explained to Owsei Temkin; Representing a discipline which is so little settled in every respect. . . one has even to be almost grateful to be able to do some propagandizing (EHA to Owsei Temkin [hereafter OT], 7January 1948, Owsei Temkin Papers, Chesney Archives, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.).
    • Erwin H. Ackerknecht (hereafter EHA) to Henry Sigerist, 25 September 1945, Sigerist Papers, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (It should be noted that there are collections of Sigerist's correspondence at both Johns Hopkins and Yale Universities.) EHA was a popular lecturer and in Wisconsin spoke to a variety of groups around the state: "one can't easily refuse," he explained to Owsei Temkin; "Representing a discipline which is so little settled in every respect. . . one has even to be almost grateful to be able to do some propagandizing" (EHA to Owsei Temkin [hereafter OT], 7January 1948, Owsei Temkin Papers, Chesney Archives, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.).
  • 3
    • 34848919656 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to OT, 8 May 1946, Temkin Papers.
    • EHA to OT, 8 May 1946, Temkin Papers.
  • 4
    • 0004127930 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Sigerist's ideas and leadership role, see Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown, eds, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
    • On Sigerist's ideas and leadership role, see Elizabeth Fee and Theodore M. Brown, eds., Making Medical History: The Life and Times of Henry E. Sigerist (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997);
    • (1997) Making Medical History: The Life and Times of Henry E. Sigerist
  • 5
    • 34848925607 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Using Medical History to Shape a Profession: The Ideals of William Osier and Henry E. Sigerist
    • ed. Frank Huisman and John Harley Warner Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
    • Fee and Brown, "Using Medical History to Shape a Profession: The Ideals of William Osier and Henry E. Sigerist," in Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their Meanings, ed. Frank Huisman and John Harley Warner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), pp. 139-64;
    • (2004) Locating Medical History: The Stories and Their Meanings , pp. 139-164
    • Fee1    Brown2
  • 6
    • 34848909722 scopus 로고
    • Recollections of a Former Leipzig Student
    • EHA
    • EHA, "Recollections of a Former Leipzig Student," J. Hist. Med., 1958, 13: 147-50.
    • (1958) J. Hist. Med , vol.13 , pp. 147-150
  • 7
    • 34848859720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • History of Medicine 121: The History and Geography of Disease, Fall 1954; notes in the author's possession. This course evolved into EHA, Geschichte und Geographie der wichtigsten Krankheiten (Stuttgart: Enke, 1963).
    • History of Medicine 121: "The History and Geography of Disease, "Fall 1954; notes in the author's possession. This course evolved into EHA, Geschichte und Geographie der wichtigsten Krankheiten (Stuttgart: Enke, 1963).
  • 8
    • 34848891685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to Sigerist, 3January 1947, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins.
    • EHA to Sigerist, 3January 1947, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins.
  • 9
    • 34848827006 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • My main occupation at present is . . . my thirty hour introductory course in the History of Medicine. I have the second year class, sixty students, two hours a week, and it seems to me both parts enjoy the adventure. . . . The whole thing (course) is somewhat barbarian. Doing ancient civilization in two hours or Greek medicine in three hours is a very frustrating experience (EHA to George Rosen, 17 February 1947, George Rosen Papers, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.). See also EHA to Sigerist, 3 and 22 January 1947, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins.
    • "My main occupation at present is . . . my thirty hour introductory course in the History of Medicine. I have the second year class, sixty students, two hours a week, and it seems to me both parts enjoy the adventure. . . . The whole thing (course) is somewhat barbarian. Doing ancient civilization in two hours or Greek medicine in three hours is a very frustrating experience" (EHA to George Rosen, 17 February 1947, George Rosen Papers, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.). See also EHA to Sigerist, 3 and 22 January 1947, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins.
  • 11
    • 34848818965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • also in Sudhoffs Archiv, 1932, 26: 61-109, 113-83. His Lebenslauf summarized on the last page provides the details of his medical training and thanks Sigerist for his help in choosing the theme and completing the thesis. For the letter of recommendation, see Sigerist to William S. Middleton, 10 October 1946, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins.
    • also in Sudhoffs Archiv, 1932, 26: 61-109, 113-83. His "Lebenslauf summarized on the last page provides the details of his medical training and thanks Sigerist for his help in choosing the theme and completing the thesis. For the letter of recommendation, see Sigerist to William S. Middleton, 10 October 1946, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins.
  • 12
    • 34848894085 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • My first impressions [of the United States] were from a basement window on W 76th.-but I didn't care. I ate. I hadn't eaten enough for 11/2 years and weighed something like 130 pounds or less and there was no blackout! And no police after me (EHA to Paul Cranefield, 28 April 1961, Paul Cranefield Papers, RG 450C850, box 1, folder 3, Rockefeller Archives Center, Tarrytown, N.Y, hereafter RAC, For his recollection of this and other incidents, see also EHA's Autobiographical Notes. July 1986, an unpublished manuscript circulated to friends and reproduced in Sylvia Gonzalez-Ackerknecht and Ellen DollarAckerknecht, In Remembrance of Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Medical Historian, 1.6.1906-18.11.1988 New York, privately printed, 2002, a collection of biographical materials assembled by his daughters.
    • "My first impressions [of the United States] were from a basement window on W 76th.-but I didn't care. I ate. I hadn't eaten enough for 11/2 years and weighed something like 130 pounds or less and there was no blackout! And no police after me" (EHA to Paul Cranefield, 28 April 1961, Paul Cranefield Papers, RG 450C850, box 1, folder 3, Rockefeller Archives Center, Tarrytown, N.Y. [hereafter RAC]). For his recollection of this and other incidents, see also EHA's "Autobiographical Notes. July 1986," an unpublished manuscript circulated to friends and reproduced in Sylvia Gonzalez-Ackerknecht and Ellen DollarAckerknecht, In Remembrance of Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Medical Historian, 1.6.1906-18.11.1988 (New York, privately printed, 2002), a collection of biographical materials assembled by his daughters. Jean van Heijenoort's memoir of Trotsky refers to Ackerknecht's visit to Turkey and describes him as "then the foremost leader of the German Trotskyite group"
  • 15
    • 34848828076 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • When I came to the US I intended to stay an anthropologist - I had just learned the trade in France-but I had to turn medical historian for economic reasons (fortunately other emotional reasons made me enjoy Paris clinicians just as much as subincisions and Navaho songs) (EHA to Charles Rosenberg [hereafter CER], 12 July 1958; all letters cited from EHA to CER are in the author's possession). He referred later to my beloved Lévy-Bruhl (EHAto Sigerist, 17 September 1948, Sigerist Papers, Yale).
    • "When I came to the US I intended to stay an anthropologist - I had just learned the trade in France-but I had to turn medical historian for economic reasons (fortunately other emotional reasons made me enjoy Paris clinicians just as much as subincisions and Navaho songs)" (EHA to Charles Rosenberg [hereafter CER], 12 July 1958; all letters cited from EHA to CER are in the author's possession). He referred later to "my beloved Lévy-Bruhl" (EHAto Sigerist, 17 September 1948, Sigerist Papers, Yale).
  • 16
    • 34848828077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to CER, 23 November 1958. His two daughters were born in 1941 and 1944.
    • EHA to CER, 23 November 1958. His two daughters were born in 1941 and 1944.
  • 17
    • 34848868285 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to OT, 18 October 1946, Temkin Papers. Giba Symposia, a promotional publication, had provided a steady market for Ackerknecht's articles;
    • EHA to OT, 18 October 1946, Temkin Papers. Giba Symposia, a promotional publication, had provided a steady market for Ackerknecht's articles;
  • 18
    • 34848901829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see, e.g., the number for January 1944, 5, in which he produced three of the five articles: Origin and Distribution of Skull Cults, Head Trophies and Skull Cults in the Old World, and Head Trophies in America, pp. 1654-76.
    • see, e.g., the number for January 1944, vol. 5, in which he produced three of the five articles: "Origin and Distribution of Skull Cults," "Head Trophies and Skull Cults in the Old World," and "Head Trophies in America," pp. 1654-76.
  • 19
    • 34848815189 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The phrase businessman's culture is from EHA to George Rosen, 4 November 1955, Rosen Papers; the phrase about ballgames is from EHA to Sigerist, 4 May 1956, Sigerist Papers, Yale. Ackerknecht described Zurich academics as being reserved, rich, and stuffy, but he regarded this as an advantage: because most of this midwestern friendliness only leads to your being bored continuously to tears by halfwits (EHA to Cranefield, 22 June 1957, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 3).
    • The phrase "businessman's culture" is from EHA to George Rosen, 4 November 1955, Rosen Papers; the phrase about ballgames is from EHA to Sigerist, 4 May 1956, Sigerist Papers, Yale. Ackerknecht described Zurich academics as being reserved, rich, and stuffy, but he regarded this as an advantage: "because most of this midwestern friendliness only leads to your being bored continuously to tears by halfwits" (EHA to Cranefield, 22 June 1957, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 3).
  • 20
    • 34848846723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Every good historian, Ackerknecht wrote to a favorite student, tries to present his material as relevant, not as a dead issue. But of course he suffers from severe limitations, if he is not an active specialist in the field himself, as it happens only in very rare cases, like Knud Faber (EHA to Cranefield, 19 December 1955, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 2). Ackerknecht was an admirer of practicing clinician Knud Faber's Nosography: The Evolution of Clinical Medicine in Modern Times, 2nd ed. rev. (New York: Hoeber, 1930).
    • Every good historian, Ackerknecht wrote to a favorite student, tries to present his material as relevant, "not as a dead issue. But of course he suffers from severe limitations, if he is not an active specialist in the field himself, as it happens only in very rare cases, like Knud Faber" (EHA to Cranefield, 19 December 1955, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 2). Ackerknecht was an admirer of practicing clinician Knud Faber's Nosography: The Evolution of Clinical Medicine in Modern Times, 2nd ed. rev. (New York: Hoeber, 1930).
  • 21
    • 34848877117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This was the rationale that had justified the Rockefeller Foundation's Alan Gregg in supporting a long-term subvention for Sigerist and the Johns Hopkins Institute beginning in 1935. Gregg reported to the Foundation's trustees that Sigerist's chief interest, is the social role of the physician and the utilization of past experience in organizing and controlling the practice of medicine, he is also devoting effort to teaching students the ethical and social implications of the practice of medicine, Now that the center in Leipzig is virtually destroyed, the work of Sigerist at Hopkins is without known parallel. It is an explicit effort to preserve a channel through which the social sciences and humanities can reach medical scientists and practitioners, Alan Gregg, 17 April 1935,Johns Hopkins Institute of History of Medicine, Projects United States, RG 1.1, series 200, box 93, folder 1120, RAC, For background, see Theodore M. Brown, Friendship and Phil
    • This was the rationale that had justified the Rockefeller Foundation's Alan Gregg in supporting a long-term subvention for Sigerist and the Johns Hopkins Institute beginning in 1935. Gregg reported to the Foundation's trustees that Sigerist's "chief interest. . . is the social role of the physician and the utilization of past experience in organizing and controlling the practice of medicine. . . . he is also devoting effort to teaching students the ethical and social implications of the practice of medicine. . . . Now that the center in Leipzig is virtually destroyed, the work of Sigerist at Hopkins is without known parallel. It is an explicit effort to preserve a channel through which the social sciences and humanities can reach medical scientists and practitioners" ([Alan Gregg], 17 April 1935,Johns Hopkins Institute of History of Medicine, Projects United States, RG 1.1, series 200, box 93, folder 1120, RAC). For background, see Theodore M. Brown, "Friendship and Philanthropy: Henry Sigerist, Alan Gregg, and the Rockefeller Foundation," in Fee and Brown, Making Medical History (n. 4), pp. 288-312.
  • 22
    • 34848855944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Within a month of moving to Madison he wrote to Temkin, expressing his commitment to working on Virchow and the history of disease (EHA to OT, 7 February 1947, Temkin Papers).
    • Within a month of moving to Madison he wrote to Temkin, expressing his commitment to working on "Virchow and the history of disease" (EHA to OT, 7 February 1947, Temkin Papers).
  • 23
    • 34848927999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Typhus would not have grown to epidemic proportions in Upper Silesia if the population had not been bodily and mentally neglected, and the devastation caused by cholera would be quite negligible if the disease claimed no more victims among the working classes than among the well-to-do (Rudolf Virchow, The Epidemics of 1848 [Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Scientific Medicine, 27 November 1848], in Virchow, Collected Essays on Public Health and Epidemiology, 2 vols., ed. L.J. Rather [Canton, Mass.: Science History Publications, 1985], 1: 113-19, on p. 117).
    • "Typhus would not have grown to epidemic proportions in Upper Silesia if the population had not been bodily and mentally neglected, and the devastation caused by cholera would be quite negligible if the disease claimed no more victims among the working classes than among the well-to-do" (Rudolf Virchow, "The Epidemics of 1848" [Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Scientific Medicine, 27 November 1848], in Virchow, Collected Essays on Public Health and Epidemiology, 2 vols., ed. L.J. Rather [Canton, Mass.: Science History Publications, 1985], 1: 113-19, on p. 117).
  • 24
    • 34848906408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Most medical historians have the fatal tendency to write rather the history of doctors than the history of medicine and disease (EHA, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley 1760-1900, Supplement to the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, no. 4 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945), p. 4.
    • "Most medical historians have the fatal tendency to write rather the history of doctors than the history of medicine and disease" (EHA, Malaria in the Upper Mississippi Valley 1760-1900, Supplement to the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, no. 4 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1945), p. 4.
  • 25
    • 34848895296 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • George Rosen, A Theory of Medical Historiography, Bull. Hist. Med., 1940, 8: 655-65, on p. 665.
    • George Rosen, "A Theory of Medical Historiography," Bull. Hist. Med., 1940, 8: 655-65, on p. 665.
  • 26
    • 34848916241 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA, Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Anthropologist (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1953), p. 46. It seems to me pretty obvious, Ackerknecht wrote in 1946, that Virchow still meant primarily what so many of his predecessors had meant - namely, that social science is only a part of medicine (EHA to OT, 14 August 1946, Temkin Papers).
    • EHA, Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Anthropologist (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1953), p. 46. "It seems to me pretty obvious," Ackerknecht wrote in 1946, "that Virchow still meant primarily what so many of his predecessors had meant - namely, that social science is only a part of medicine" (EHA to OT, 14 August 1946, Temkin Papers).
  • 27
    • 34848821457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA
    • EHA, Malaria (n. 19), p. 66.
    • Malaria , Issue.19 , pp. 66
  • 29
    • 34848922273 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA, Malaria (n. 19), pp. 99, 127. Although Ackerknecht's choice of malaria was dictated in part by his war-related funding, it also reflected his personal interests and a vigorous interwar debate over the best ways of combating the disease - which had reflected conflicting emphases on narrow and technical vector-oriented approaches to malaria control as opposed to what might be called holistic, economic- and social-development-focused programs.
    • EHA, Malaria (n. 19), pp. 99, 127. Although Ackerknecht's choice of malaria was dictated in part by his war-related funding, it also reflected his personal interests and a vigorous interwar debate over the best ways of combating the disease - which had reflected conflicting emphases on narrow and technical vector-oriented approaches to malaria control as opposed to what might be called holistic, economic- and social-development-focused programs.
  • 33
    • 0024634434 scopus 로고
    • The Epidemiology of Minutiae: European Malaria Policy in the 1920s and 1930s
    • Hughes Evans, "The Epidemiology of Minutiae: European Malaria Policy in the 1920s and 1930s," Isis, 1989, 80: 40-59.
    • (1989) Isis , vol.80 , pp. 40-59
    • Evans, H.1
  • 34
    • 34848885613 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lewis Wendell Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 266. Hackett felt that a precise understanding of the vector and modes of transmission should be at the heart of a General Strategy of Malaria Control - the title of the chapter this quotation is drawn from.
    • Lewis Wendell Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 266. Hackett felt that a precise understanding of the vector and modes of transmission should be at the heart of a "General Strategy of Malaria Control" - the title of the chapter this quotation is drawn from.
  • 35
    • 0009835925 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • McKeown, it might be noted, born in 1911, was only five years younger than Ackerknecht. His influential papers first began to appear in the fifties. See Thomas McKeown and R. G. Record, Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the 19th Century, Pop. Studies, 1962, 16: 94-122;
    • McKeown, it might be noted, born in 1911, was only five years younger than Ackerknecht. His influential papers first began to appear in the fifties. See Thomas McKeown and R. G. Record, "Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the 19th Century," Pop. Studies, 1962, 16: 94-122;
  • 37
    • 34848865191 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • McKeown, The Origins of Human Disease (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), cites Sigerist in the preface, p. 5. René Dubos provides another example of a contemporary who was skeptical of the reductionist narrative of an ever-improving morbidity and mortality picture, with a willingness to see disease as a social as well as a demographic phenomenon. Tuberculosis, as he and Jean Dubos put it, is a social disease, and presents problems that transcend the conventional medical approach; they called for a focus on the subtle interplay among economic, biological, and cultural factors
    • McKeown, The Origins of Human Disease (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), cites Sigerist in the preface, p. 5. René Dubos provides another example of a contemporary who was skeptical of the reductionist narrative of an ever-improving morbidity and mortality picture, with a willingness to see disease as a social as well as a demographic phenomenon. "Tuberculosis, " as he and Jean Dubos put it, "is a social disease, and presents problems that transcend the conventional medical approach"; they called for a focus on the "subtle interplay" among economic, biological, and cultural factors
  • 38
    • 34848916240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (René Dubos and Jean Dubos, The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society [1952; New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987], p. xxxvii). Their admonition that the disease was the consequence of gross defects in social organization, and of errors in individual behavior (ibid.) might have been written by any number of mid-nineteenthcentury sanitarians.
    • (René Dubos and Jean Dubos, The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society [1952; New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987], p. xxxvii). Their admonition that the disease was "the consequence of gross defects in social organization, and of errors in individual behavior" (ibid.) might have been written by any number of mid-nineteenthcentury sanitarians.
  • 41
    • 7344262409 scopus 로고
    • Karlsruhe: Muller, Both books were in George Rosen's personal library, and Ackerknecht would as a student almost certainly have been familiar with them
    • Alfons Fischer, Grundriss der sozialen Hygiene (Karlsruhe: Muller, 1925). Both books were in George Rosen's personal library, and Ackerknecht would as a student almost certainly have been familiar with them.
    • (1925) Grundriss der sozialen Hygiene
    • Fischer, A.1
  • 44
    • 34748927248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Rosen, The Specialization of Medicine with Particular Reference to Ophthalmology (New York: Froben Press, 1944), which was his printed Columbia doctoral thesis in sociology: he thanked his advisers Robert Maclver and Robert Lynd as well as Robert Merton, Henry Sigerist, and Erwin Ackerknecht for reading and commenting on the manuscript.
    • and Rosen, The Specialization of Medicine with Particular Reference to Ophthalmology (New York: Froben Press, 1944), which was his printed Columbia doctoral thesis in sociology: he thanked his advisers Robert Maclver and Robert Lynd as well as Robert Merton, Henry Sigerist, and Erwin Ackerknecht for reading and commenting on the manuscript.
  • 45
    • 34848899373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Henry E. Sigerist, A History of Medicine, 1, Primitive and Archaic Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951). The second half of the introduction (pp. 37-101) is titled Disease in Space and Time, while pp. 105-213 are devoted to Primitive Medicine. For EHA's opinion of Rosen's thesis on specialization, see EHA to Sigerist, 26 April 1947, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins: By the way, in re-reading Rosen's thesis, I found it even more excellent than at the first time. It is a great pity that this study of his, which is undoubtedly the best thing he has ever done, has been published in such a form that it remains practically unknown.
    • Henry E. Sigerist, A History of Medicine, vol. 1, Primitive and Archaic Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951). The second half of the introduction (pp. 37-101) is titled "Disease in Space and Time," while pp. 105-213 are devoted to "Primitive Medicine." For EHA's opinion of Rosen's thesis on specialization, see EHA to Sigerist, 26 April 1947, Sigerist Papers, Johns Hopkins: "By the way, in re-reading Rosen's thesis, I found it even more excellent than at the first time. It is a great pity that this study of his, which is undoubtedly the best thing he has ever done, has been published in such a form that it remains practically unknown."
  • 46
    • 34848912393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In February 1938, the day we cremated Leon Sedoff at the Père Lachaise (he was probably killed by the GPU ), I had enough and I walked out of one of these idiotic political refugee meetings and never set afoot into a political meeting again (In Remembrance [n. 9], p. 4; italics in original). Sedoff was Trotsky's son and Ackerknecht's friend.
    • "In February 1938, the day we cremated Leon Sedoff at the Père Lachaise (he was probably killed by the GPU ), I had enough and I walked out of one of these idiotic political refugee meetings and never set afoot into a political meeting again" (In Remembrance [n. 9], p. 4; italics in original). Sedoff was Trotsky's son and Ackerknecht's friend.
  • 47
    • 0001019035 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA, Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867. The Fielding H. Garrison Lecture, Bull. Hist. Med., 1948, 22: 562-93. It should be noted that Ackerknecht's emphasis on the role of liberal ideas and economic agendas in endorsing the anticontagionist position was hedged by his placing the case study in the context of an inherently difficult and ambiguous empirical situation; where the weight of evidence did not dictate the appropriate options-as in the debate over contagionist as opposed to anticontagionist models of epidemic disease transmission - social interests could make a key difference in theory choice. Ackerknecht's article has remained a visible and heuristically valuable-if controversial-formulation.
    • EHA, "Anticontagionism between 1821 and 1867. The Fielding H. Garrison Lecture," Bull. Hist. Med., 1948, 22: 562-93. It should be noted that Ackerknecht's emphasis on the role of liberal ideas and economic agendas in endorsing the anticontagionist position was hedged by his placing the case study in the context of an inherently difficult and ambiguous empirical situation; where the weight of evidence did not dictate the appropriate options-as in the debate over contagionist as opposed to anticontagionist models of epidemic disease transmission - social interests could make a key difference in theory choice. Ackerknecht's article has remained a visible and heuristically valuable-if controversial-formulation.
  • 49
    • 0347393965 scopus 로고
    • Anticontagionism and History's Medical Record
    • ed. Peter Wright and Andrew Treacher Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, esp. pp. 87-93;
    • Roger Cooter, "Anticontagionism and History's Medical Record," in The Problem of Medical Knowledge, ed. Peter Wright and Andrew Treacher (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1982), pp. 87-108, esp. pp. 87-93;
    • (1982) The Problem of Medical Knowledge , pp. 87-108
    • Cooter, R.1
  • 52
    • 0037599789 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a more recent evaluation of the Paris Clinical School, see Caroline Hannaway and Ann La Berge, eds, Amsterdam: Rodopi
    • For a more recent evaluation of the Paris Clinical School, see Caroline Hannaway and Ann La Berge, eds., Constructing Paris Medicine (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998).
    • (1998) Constructing Paris Medicine
  • 53
    • 0039262253 scopus 로고
    • Science and the Economy of Seventeenth Century England
    • Robert K. Merton, "Science and the Economy of Seventeenth Century England," Sci. & Soc., 1939, 3: 3-30;
    • (1939) Sci. & Soc , vol.3 , pp. 3-30
    • Merton, R.K.1
  • 54
    • 0009836529 scopus 로고
    • Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century England
    • Merton, "Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century England," Osiris, 1938, 4: 360-632;
    • (1938) Osiris , vol.4 , pp. 360-632
    • Merton1
  • 55
    • 34848813999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ludwick Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), first published in German in 1935 (Basel: Schwabe, 1935).
    • Ludwick Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), first published in German in 1935 (Basel: Schwabe, 1935).
  • 56
    • 34848816358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to CER, 7 February 1966. See also EHA, On the Teaching of Medical History, in On the Utility of Medical History, ed. lago Galdston, Monograph 1, Institute on Social and Historical Medicine, New York Academy of Medicine (New York: International Universities Press, 1957), pp. 41-49, on p. 45.
    • EHA to CER, 7 February 1966. See also EHA, "On the Teaching of Medical History," in On the Utility of Medical History, ed. lago Galdston, Monograph 1, Institute on Social and Historical Medicine, New York Academy of Medicine (New York: International Universities Press, 1957), pp. 41-49, on p. 45.
  • 57
    • 0014109196 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This often-repeated argument ultimately appeared in EHA, A Plea for a 'Behaviorist' Approach in Writing the History of Medicine, J. Hist. Med, 1967, 22: 211-14; see p. 214 for his definition of what he meant by the term behaviorism
    • This often-repeated argument ultimately appeared in EHA, "A Plea for a 'Behaviorist' Approach in Writing the History of Medicine," J. Hist. Med., 1967, 22: 211-14; see p. 214 for his definition of what he meant by the term "behaviorism."
  • 58
    • 34848817545 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Don't forget that it was my fate to grow up in a tribe which can neither eat nor copulate nor kill nor excrete nor write a book or article without first discussing the 'methodology' of the thing! That somehow either makes you do the same, or limits your feelings for 'methodology' (EHA to CER, 17 November 1969).
    • "Don't forget that it was my fate to grow up in a tribe which can neither eat nor copulate nor kill nor excrete nor write a book or article without first discussing the 'methodology' of the thing! That somehow either makes you do the same, or limits your feelings for 'methodology'" (EHA to CER, 17 November 1969).
  • 59
    • 2442769491 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA, The Role of Medical History in Medical Education, Bull. Hist. Med, 1947, 21: 135-45, on pp. 142-43.
    • EHA, "The Role of Medical History in Medical Education," Bull. Hist. Med, 1947, 21: 135-45, on pp. 142-43.
  • 60
    • 34848846714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • R. C. Buley, Pioneer Health Prior to 1840, Mississippi Valley Hist. Rev., 1933-34, 20: 497-520, on p. 499,
    • R. C. Buley, "Pioneer Health Prior to 1840," Mississippi Valley Hist. Rev., 1933-34, 20: 497-520, on p. 499,
  • 61
    • 34848836214 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • as cited in EHA, Malaria (n. 19), p. 5. Ager is a local pronunciation of ague, a traditional term for malaria-or for any recurrent fever, presumably.
    • as cited in EHA, Malaria (n. 19), p. 5. "Ager" is a local pronunciation of "ague," a traditional term for malaria-or for any recurrent fever, presumably.
  • 62
    • 34848880640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the world of contemporary Western medicine, Ackerknecht pointed to a rather different phenomenon, the pathologizing of behaviors and emotions that might at other times and places call for moral or judicial sanction. He was in later years insistent on his priority in having articulated the term psychopathological labeling in the 1940s: EHA, Psychopathology, Primitive Medicine and Primitive Culture, Bull. Hist. Med, 1943, 14: 30-67, esp. pp. 30-35
    • In the world of contemporary Western medicine, Ackerknecht pointed to a rather different phenomenon, the pathologizing of behaviors and emotions that might at other times and places call for moral or judicial sanction. He was in later years insistent on his priority in having articulated the term "psychopathological labeling" in the 1940s: EHA, " Psychopathology, Primitive Medicine and Primitive Culture," Bull. Hist. Med., 1943, 14: 30-67, esp. pp. 30-35.
  • 63
    • 34848838760 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ackerknecht regarded one of the most important aspects of his work on primitive medicine as being its rejection of the evolutionary notion of primitive medicine's constituting a 'Vorstufe, an embryonic modern medicine: it was a culture-specific practice necessarily considered in its own right; This, if you want to use the technical term-functionalist approach I owe mainly to RUTH BENEDICT EHA, Medicine and Ethnology: Selected Essays, ed. H. H. Walser and H. M. Koelbing [Bern: Huber, 1971, p. 14; emphasis in original
    • Ackerknecht regarded one of the most important aspects of his work on primitive medicine as being its rejection of the evolutionary notion of "primitive" medicine's constituting a "'Vorstufe', . . . an embryonic modern medicine": it was a culture-specific practice necessarily considered in its own right; "This - if you want to use the technical term-functionalist approach I owe mainly to RUTH BENEDICT" (EHA, Medicine and Ethnology: Selected Essays, ed. H. H. Walser and H. M. Koelbing [Bern: Huber, 1971], p. 14; emphasis in original).
  • 64
    • 34848855250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934) was widely read and assigned for classroom use;
    • Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1934) was widely read and assigned for classroom use;
  • 65
  • 66
    • 34548713642 scopus 로고
    • Primitive Medicine and Culture Pattern
    • See esp. EHA, which is organized around a comparison of medical ideas and practices among the Cheyenne, the Dobuans, and the Thonga
    • See esp. EHA, "Primitive Medicine and Culture Pattern," Bull. Hist. Med., 1942, 12: 545-74, which is organized around a comparison of medical ideas and practices among the Cheyenne, the Dobuans, and the Thonga.
    • (1942) Bull. Hist. Med , vol.12 , pp. 545-574
  • 67
    • 84933101908 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Homosexuality poses the problem very simply. A tendency toward this trait in our culture exposes an individual to all the conflicts to which all aberrants are always exposed, and we tend to identify the consequences of this conflict with homosexuality. But these consequences are obviously local and cultural. Homosexuals in many societies are not incompetent, but they may be such if the culture asks adjustments of them that would strain any man's vitality (Ruth Benedict, Anthropology and the Abnormal, J. Gen. Psychol., 1934, 10: 59-82, on p. 64).
    • "Homosexuality poses the problem very simply. A tendency toward this trait in our culture exposes an individual to all the conflicts to which all aberrants are always exposed, and we tend to identify the consequences of this conflict with homosexuality. But these consequences are obviously local and cultural. Homosexuals in many societies are not incompetent, but they may be such if the culture asks adjustments of them that would strain any man's vitality" (Ruth Benedict, "Anthropology and the Abnormal," J. Gen. Psychol., 1934, 10: 59-82, on p. 64).
  • 68
    • 34848854673 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., p. 73. Cf. EHA, Psychopathology, Primitive Medicine (n. 37), p. 31,
    • Ibid., p. 73. Cf. EHA, "Psychopathology, Primitive Medicine" (n. 37), p. 31,
  • 69
    • 34848913615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing sociologist Kimball Young: the normal is but a variant of the concept of the good and the proper (Kimball Young, Personality and Problems of Adjustment [New York: Crofts, 1940], p. 736).
    • citing sociologist Kimball Young: "the normal is but a variant of the concept of the good and the proper" (Kimball Young, Personality and Problems of Adjustment [New York: Crofts, 1940], p. 736).
  • 70
    • 34848927021 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benedict, Patterns (n. 38), p. 10. See also pp. 230-31.
    • Benedict, Patterns (n. 38), p. 10. See also pp. 230-31.
  • 71
    • 34848878224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., p. 228; and, on conformity in Middletown, p. 252. The implications of such ironies were not lost on contemporaries. The Pelican Books edition of Patterns reprinted in 1946 bears on its printed cover the subtitle An Analysis of Our Social Structure as Related to Primitive Civilizations.
    • Ibid., p. 228; and, on conformity in Middletown, p. 252. The implications of such ironies were not lost on contemporaries. The Pelican Books edition of Patterns reprinted in 1946 bears on its printed cover the subtitle An Analysis of Our Social Structure as Related to Primitive Civilizations.
  • 72
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    • For a cross-section of policy-oriented anthropology at the end of World War II, see Ralph Linton, ed, New York: Columbia University Press
    • For a cross-section of policy-oriented anthropology at the end of World War II, see Ralph Linton, ed., The Science of Man in the World Crisis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945).
    • (1945) The Science of Man in the World Crisis
  • 73
    • 34848872085 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Mitchell G. Ash, Gestalt Psychology in German Culture, 1890-1967: Holism and the Quest for Objectivity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). As mentioned previously, George Rosen similarly spoke of social field - invoking the patterned, individually internalized, and interactive aspect of social structure. As Ackerknecht himself put it in 1942, It is certainly more than pure chance that the emphasizing of the configuration in anthropology, opposed to a continued analysis of the parts, coincides with similar trends in biology, psychology, philosophy, etc.
    • See Mitchell G. Ash, Gestalt Psychology in German Culture, 1890-1967: Holism and the Quest for Objectivity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). As mentioned previously, George Rosen similarly spoke of "social field" - invoking the patterned, individually internalized, and interactive aspect of social structure. As Ackerknecht himself put it in 1942, "It is certainly more than pure chance that the emphasizing of the configuration in anthropology, opposed to a continued analysis of the parts, coincides with similar trends in biology, psychology, philosophy, etc."
  • 74
    • 34848893472 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (EHA, "Primitive Medicine" [n. 39], p. 547).
    • Primitive Medicine , Issue.39 , pp. 547
  • 76
    • 34848838754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Such notions of historically and culturally specific representation were also prominent in Fleck's Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact - a book published, not entirely coincidentally, only a year after Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (1935 as opposed to 1934).
    • Such notions of historically and culturally specific representation were also prominent in Fleck's Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact - a book published, not entirely coincidentally, only a year after Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (1935 as opposed to 1934).
  • 77
    • 34848866424 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It is by no means an accident that Benedict attacked the biological determination of behavior and social organization, e.g, or that she explicitly underlined the possibilities of social change guided by rational understanding. She may have been a functionalist as Ackerknecht himself described her, but she was far from being a fatalist
    • It is by no means an accident that Benedict attacked the biological determination of behavior and social organization, e.g., or that she explicitly underlined the possibilities of social change guided by rational understanding. She may have been a functionalist (as Ackerknecht himself described her), but she was far from being a fatalist.
  • 83
    • 34848899988 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Erring Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (New York: Doubleday, 1961). A major portion of Goffman's text had been published or presented in 1957 and 1959.
    • Erring Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (New York: Doubleday, 1961). A major portion of Goffman's text had been published or presented in 1957 and 1959.
  • 84
    • 34848855935 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Benedict and Ackerknecht both saw behavioral ills in particular as a consequence of maladjustment between individuals (distributed, as they were, by nature and randomness) and the culture into which they were born. If this were the case, then social change could bring about a shift in disease incidence in the arena of psychological and emotional maladjustment as well as in somatic ills
    • Benedict and Ackerknecht both saw behavioral ills in particular as a consequence of maladjustment between individuals (distributed, as they were, by nature and randomness) and the culture into which they were born. If this were the case, then social change could bring about a shift in disease incidence in the arena of psychological and emotional maladjustment as well as in somatic ills.
  • 85
    • 0003962968 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA, Aspects of the History of Therapeutics, Bull. Hist. Med., 1962, 36: 389-419, on p. 391.
    • EHA, "Aspects of the History of Therapeutics," Bull. Hist. Med., 1962, 36: 389-419, on p. 391.
  • 86
    • 34848837490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to OT, 7 February 1947, Temkin Papers. Ackerknecht maintained this conventional Graeco-pietistic view. Psychiatry, like science in general, he explained in his Short History of Psychiatry, begins with the Greeks, who declared themselves outspokenly in favor of naturalistic explanations and thus became the founders of scientific medicine and of psychiatry
    • EHA to OT, 7 February 1947, Temkin Papers. Ackerknecht maintained this conventional Graeco-pietistic view. Psychiatry, like science in general, he explained in his Short History of Psychiatry, begins with the Greeks, who "declared themselves outspokenly in favor of naturalistic explanations and thus became the founders of scientific medicine and of psychiatry"
  • 88
    • 34848918339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Goldwater's knownothingism, see EHA to Paul Cranefield, 5 June 1964, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 4; The Trotzki Diary is very much below the actual author, whom I once knew well. (I still don't publicise the fact for obvious reasons; but after having straightened it out with the FBI I needn't hide it any longer either at least from my friends) (EHA to CER, 27 March 1959). On McCarthy,
    • On Goldwater's "knownothingism," see EHA to Paul Cranefield, 5 June 1964, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 4; "The Trotzki Diary is very much below the actual author, whom I once knew well. (I still don't publicise the fact for obvious reasons; but after having straightened it out with the FBI I needn't hide it any longer either at least from my friends) " (EHA to CER, 27 March 1959). On McCarthy,
  • 89
    • 34848851778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see EHA to George Rosen, 18 April 1950, Rosen Papers: 'You must not think that I am a paranoic or disciple of 'my' senator. The lies of this louse unfortunately make it impossible to attack the fellow-travelers even where they really are.
    • see EHA to George Rosen, 18 April 1950, Rosen Papers: 'You must not think that I am a paranoic or disciple of 'my' senator. The lies of this louse unfortunately make it impossible to attack the fellow-travelers even where they really are."
  • 90
    • 34848862919 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to OT, 30 April 1959, Temkin Papers.
    • EHA to OT, 30 April 1959, Temkin Papers.
  • 91
    • 34848827595 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to OT, 9 September 1970, Temkin Papers.
    • EHA to OT, 9 September 1970, Temkin Papers.
  • 92
    • 34848900632 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to Paul Cranefield, 25 July 1963, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 4.
    • EHA to Paul Cranefield, 25 July 1963, Cranefield Papers, box 1, folder 4.
  • 93
    • 34848891087 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EHA to CER, 28 September 1977.
    • EHA to CER, 28 September 1977.
  • 94
    • 0017496906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • He was acknowledging receipt of a reprint of an article of mine (Charles E. Rosenberg, And Heal the Sick: The Hospital and the Patient in 19th Century America, J. Soc. Hist., 1977, 10: 428-47) and the draft of another
    • He was acknowledging receipt of a reprint of an article of mine (Charles E. Rosenberg, "And Heal the Sick: The Hospital and the Patient in 19th Century America," J. Soc. Hist., 1977, 10: 428-47) and the draft of another
  • 95
    • 0018608256 scopus 로고
    • Inward Vision and Outward Glance: The Shaping of the American Hospital, 1880-1914
    • 346-91
    • (Rosenberg, "Inward Vision and Outward Glance: The Shaping of the American Hospital, 1880-1914," Bull. Hist. Med., 1979, 53: 346-91).
    • (1979) Bull. Hist. Med , vol.53
    • Rosenberg1
  • 96
    • 34848907558 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This is a reference to Richard Crossman's edited The God That Failed New York: Harper, 1950; Columbia University Press, 2001
    • This is a reference to Richard Crossman's edited volume, The God That Failed (New York: Harper, 1950; Columbia University Press, 2001).
  • 97
    • 34848860952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It is rhetorically significant that these are his biography's concluding sentences: EHA, Rudolf Virchow (n. 21), p. 242 (and see similar comments on Virchow's character, pp. 17, 37, 39).
    • It is rhetorically significant that these are his biography's concluding sentences: EHA, Rudolf Virchow (n. 21), p. 242 (and see similar comments on Virchow's character, pp. 17, 37, 39).
  • 98
    • 0016726823 scopus 로고
    • Rudolf Virchow und die Socialmedizin
    • For a somewhat later evaluation, emphasizing Virchow's movement from a kind of reformist utopianism to practical public health reform, see EHA
    • For a somewhat later evaluation, emphasizing Virchow's movement from a kind of reformist utopianism to practical public health reform, see EHA, "Rudolf Virchow und die Socialmedizin," Sudhoffs Archiv, 1975, 59: 247-53.
    • (1975) Sudhoffs Archiv , vol.59 , pp. 247-253
  • 99
    • 34848914970 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The terms Gestalt, whole, field, and system thus functioned as what Kurt Danziger has called 'generative metaphors,' organizing research and acquiring increasingly rich new meanings within particular laboratory settings while simultaneously connecting them with wider scientific and cultural discursive fields (Ash, Gestalt Psychology [n. 44], p. 11).
    • "The terms Gestalt, whole, field, and system thus functioned as what Kurt Danziger has called 'generative metaphors,' organizing research and acquiring increasingly rich new meanings within particular laboratory settings while simultaneously connecting them with wider scientific and cultural discursive fields" (Ash, Gestalt Psychology [n. 44], p. 11).
  • 100
    • 34848901822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The line of descent from Ruth Benedict's comparison of Robert Lynds's midwestern Americans with the Native American cultures of the Pacific Northwest, or Ackerknecht's -quite literal - comparison of psychiatrists with shamans, to Latour and Woolgar's much-cited ethnography of the Salk people, seems clear enough: Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Cal.: Sage, 1979).
    • The line of descent from Ruth Benedict's comparison of Robert Lynds's midwestern Americans with the Native American cultures of the Pacific Northwest, or Ackerknecht's -quite literal - comparison of psychiatrists with shamans, to Latour and Woolgar's much-cited ethnography of the "Salk people," seems clear enough: Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Cal.: Sage, 1979).
  • 101
    • 34848854032 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Irony has often served as the vehicle for cultural comment and criticism. I remember as a beginning graduate student being much impressed by the anthropologist Francis L. K. Hsu's study A Cholera Epidemic in a Chinese Town, in Health, Culture and Community: Case Studies of Public Reactions to Health Programs, ed. Benjamin D. Paul (New York: Russell Sage, 1955), pp. 135-54.
    • Irony has often served as the vehicle for cultural comment and criticism. I remember as a beginning graduate student being much impressed by the anthropologist Francis L. K. Hsu's study "A Cholera Epidemic in a Chinese Town," in Health, Culture and Community: Case Studies of Public Reactions to Health Programs, ed. Benjamin D. Paul (New York: Russell Sage, 1955), pp. 135-54.
  • 102
    • 34848921635 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hsu was a good friend of Ackerknecht, who recommended this article to me. The common man in China, Paul abstracted the case study's wry thesis, will accept science if it is disguised as magic, whereas the common man in America will accept magic if it is disguised as science (p. 135; emphasis in original).
    • Hsu was a good friend of Ackerknecht, who recommended this article to me. "The common man in China," Paul abstracted the case study's wry thesis, "will accept science if it is disguised as magic, whereas the common man in America will accept magic if it is disguised as science" (p. 135; emphasis in original).
  • 103
    • 34848879339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • I know of nothing which shows more terribly the inequity of human life - or call it, if you will, iniquity-than the statistics of mortality (Thomas L. Nichols, Human Physiology: The Basis of Sanitary and Social Science [London: Trübner, 1872], p. 10).
    • "I know of nothing which shows more terribly the inequity of human life - or call it, if you will, iniquity-than the statistics of mortality" (Thomas L. Nichols, Human Physiology: The Basis of Sanitary and Social Science [London: Trübner, 1872], p. 10).
  • 104
    • 0021490741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Leon Eisenberg, Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, Where Are You Now That We Need You? Amer. J. Med., 1984, 77: 524-32. A Yahoo user group focusing on the politics of public health is, not coincidentally, called The Spirit of 1848; an official Caucus of the American Public Health Association, it serves an activist network of people concerned about social inequalities in health, in the US and other countries: http://www.spiritof1848.org (accessed 16 November 2006).
    • See, e.g., Leon Eisenberg, "Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow, Where Are You Now That We Need You?" Amer. J. Med., 1984, 77: 524-32. A Yahoo user group focusing on "the politics of public health" is, not coincidentally, called The Spirit of 1848; an "official Caucus of the American Public Health Association," it "serves an activist network of people concerned about social inequalities in health, in the US and other countries": http://www.spiritof1848.org (accessed 16 November 2006).


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