Management of intractable nausea and vomiting in patients at the end of life: "I was feeling nauseous all of the time... nothing was working"

JAMA

Volumn 298, Issue 10, 2007, Pages 1196-1207

  Wood, Gordon J ^a,b   Shega, Joseph W ^a   Lynch, Beth ^a   Von Roenn, Jamie H ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMFEBUTAMONE; APREPITANT; CAFFEINE; CAPECITABINE; CHLORPROMAZINE; DEXAMETHASONE; DIMENHYDRINATE; DIPHENHYDRAMINE; DOCETAXEL; DOCUSATE SODIUM; DOPAMINE 2 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DROPERIDOL; FENTANYL; HALOPERIDOL; HYOSCYAMINE; INFUSION FLUID; LORAZEPAM; METOCLOPRAMIDE; MIRTAZAPINE; MORPHINE; OCTREOTIDE; ONDANSETRON; OPIATE; POTASSIUM CHLORIDE; PROCHLORPERAZINE; PROCHLORPERAZINE MALEATE; PROMETHAZINE; SCOPOLAMINE; TRIMETHOBENZAMIDE; TROPISETRON; UNINDEXED DRUG; ANTIEMETIC AGENT; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT;

ADULT; AKATHISIA; ANTICIPATORY NAUSEA AND VOMITING; BLURRED VISION; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CASE REPORT; CHEMOTHERAPY INDUCED EMESIS; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONFUSION; CONSTIPATION; DROWSINESS; DYSTONIA; ESOPHAGUS CANCER; ESOPHAGUS SPASM; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; FATIGUE; GAIT DISORDER; GASTROINTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION; HEADACHE; HUMAN; ILEUS; INCREASED APPETITE; INJECTION SITE PAIN; INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION; MALE; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; OPIOID INDUCED EMESIS; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; PALLIATIVE THERAPY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEDATION; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; STENT; TERMINAL CARE; TORSION DYSTONIA; URINE RETENTION; VERTIGO; XEROSTOMIA; ANAMNESIS; ARTICLE; ESOPHAGUS TUMOR; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; MIDDLE AGED; NAUSEA; NERVE TRACT; TERMINALLY ILL PATIENT; VOMITING;

ANALGESICS, OPIOID; ANTIEMETICS; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; ESOPHAGEAL NEOPLASMS; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; HUMANS; INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION; MALE; MEDICAL HISTORY TAKING; MIDDLE AGED; NAUSEA; NEURAL PATHWAYS; PALLIATIVE CARE; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; TERMINALLY ILL; VOMITING;

EID: 34548580882     PISSN: 00987484     EISSN: 15383598     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1001/jama.298.10.1196     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Reuben DB, Mor V. Nausea and vomiting in terminal cancer patients. Arch Intern Med. 1986;146(10):2021-2023.
2. Barnes S, Gott M, Payne S, et al. Prevalence of symptoms in a community-based sample of heart failure patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006;32(3):208-216.
3. Norval DA. Symptoms and sites of pain experienced by AIDS patients. S Afr Med J. 2004;94(6):450-454.
4. Fainsinger R, Miller MJ, Bruera E, Hanson J, Maceachern T. Symptom control during the last week of life on a palliative care unit. J Palliat Care. 1991;7(1):5-11.
5. Grond S, Zech D, Diefenbach C, Bischoff A. Prevalence and pattern of symptoms in patients with cancer pain: a prospective evaluation of 1635 cancer patients referred to a pain clinic. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1994;9(6):372-382.
6. Meuser T, Pietruck C, Radbruch L, Stute P, Lehmann KA, Grond S. Symptoms during cancer pain treatment following WHO-guidelines: a longitudinal follow-up study of symptom prevalence, severity and etiology. Pain. 2001;93(3):247-257.
7. Portenoy RK, Thaler HT, Kornblith AB, et al. Symptom prevalence, characteristics and distress in a cancer population. Qual Life Res. 1994;3(3):183-189.
8. Chang VT, Hwang SS, Feuerman M. Validation of the Edmonton Symptom Assessment Scale. Cancer. 2000;88(9):2164-2171.
9. Stephenson J, Davies A. An assessment of aetiology-based guidelines for the management of nausea and vomiting in patients with advanced cancer. Support Care Cancer. 2006;14(4):348-353.
10. Bentley A, Boyd K. Use of clinical pictures in the management of nausea and vomiting: a prospective audit. Palliat Med. 2001;15(3):247-253.
11. Davis MP, Walsh D. Treatment of nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer. Support Care Cancer. 2000;8(6):444-452.
12. Dalal S, Palat G, Bruera E. Chronic nausea and vomiting. In: Berger A, Shuster J, Von Roenn J, eds. Principles and Practice of Palliative Care and Supportive Oncology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007:151-162.
13. Bruera E, Suarez-Almazor M, Velasco A, Bertolino M, MacDonald SM, Hanson J. The assessment of constipation in terminal cancer patients admitted to a palliative care unit: a retrospective review. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1994;9(8):515-519.
14. Winkelbauer FW, Schofl R, Niederle B, Wildling R, Thurnher S, Lammer J. Palliative treatment of obstructing esophageal cancer with nitinol stents: value, safety, and long-term results. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1996;166(1):79-84.
15. Veehof LJ, Stewart RE, Meyboom-de Jong B, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM. Adverse drug reactions and polypharmacy in the elderly in general practice. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;55(7):533-536.
16. Morrow GR, Hickok JT, Andrews PLR, Stern RM. Reduction in serum cortisol after platinum based chemotherapy for cancer: a role for the HPA axis in treat-mentrelated nausea? Psychophysiology. 2002;39(4):491-495.
17. Priestman TJ, Roberts JT, Lucraft H, et al. Results of a randomized, double-blind comparative study of ondansetron and metoclopramide in the prevention of nausea and vomiting following high-dose upper abdominal irradiation. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 1990;2(2):71-75.
18. Kenny GN. Risk factors for postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesthesia. 1994;49(suppl):6-10.
19. Bittinger M, Barnert J, Wienbeck M. Autonomic dysfunction and the gastrointestinal tract. Clin Auton Res. 1999;9(2):75-81.
20. Haug TT, Mykletun A, Dahl AA. The prevalence of nausea in the community: psychological, social and somatic factors. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2002;24(2):81-86.
21. Borison HL, Wang SC. Physiology and pharmacology of vomiting. Pharmacol Rev. 1953;5(2):193-230.
22. Carpenter DO. Neural mechanisms of emesis. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1990;68(2):230-236.
23. Lang IM. Noxious stimulation of emesis. Dig Dis Sci. 1999;44(8)(suppl):58S-63S.
24. Mannix K. Palliation of nausea and vomiting in malignancy. Clin Med. 2006;6(2):144-147.
25. Campora E, Merlini L, Pace M, et al. The incidence of narcotic-induced emesis. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1991;6(7):428-430.
26. Gutner LB, Gould WJ, Batterman RC. The effects of potent analgesics upon vestibular function. J Clin Invest. 1952;31(3):259-266.
27. Hagen NA, Foley KM, Cerbone DJ, Portenoy RK, Inturrisi CE. Chronic nausea and morphine-6-glucuronide. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1991;6(3):125-128.
28. Klepstad P, Borchgrevink PC, Dale O, et al. Routine drug monitoring of serum concentrations of morphine, morphine-3-glucuronide and morphine-6-glucuronide do not predict clinical observations in cancer patients. Palliat Med. 2003;17(8):679-687.
29. Berger A, Clark-Snow R. Chemotherapy-related nausea and vomiting. In: Berger A, Shuster J, Von Roenn J, eds. Principles and Practice of Palliative Care and Supportive Oncology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007:139-149.
30. Morrow GR. Clinical characteristics associated with the development of anticipatory nausea and vomiting in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy treatment. J Clin Oncol. 1984;2(10):1170-1176.
31. Andrykowski MA. The role of anxiety in the development of anticipatory nausea in cancer chemotherapy: a review and synthesis. Psychosom Med. 1990;52(4):458-475.
32. Ripamonti C, Twycross R, Baines M, et al. Clinical-practice recommendations for the management of bowel obstruction in patients with end-stage cancer. Support Care Cancer. 2001;9(4):223-233.
33. Bruera E, Catz Z, Hooper R, Lentle B, MacDonald N. Chronic nausea and anorexia in advanced cancer patients: a possible role for autonomic dysfunction. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1987;2(1):19-21.
34. Rhodes VA, McDaniel RW. Nausea, vomiting, and retching: complex problems in palliative care. [published correction appears in CA Cancer J Clin. 2001;51(5):320]. CA Cancer J Clin. 2001;51(4):232-248.
35. Rhodes VA, McDaniel RW, Hanson B, Markway E, Johnson M. Sensory perception of patients on selected antineoplastic chemotherapy protocols. Cancer Nurs. 1994;17(1):45-51.
36. Burish TG, Tope DM. Psychological techniques for controlling the adverse side effects of cancer chemotherapy: findings from a decade of research. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1992;7(5):287-301.
37. Morrow GR, Rosenthal SN. Models, mechanisms and management of anticipatory nausea and emesis. Oncology. 1996;53(suppl 1):4-7.
38. Vickers AJ. Can acupuncture have specific effects on health? a systematic review of acupuncture antiemesis trials. J R Soc Med. 1996;89(6):303-311.
39. Pan CX, Morrison RS, Ness J, Fugh-Berman A, Leipzig RM. Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of pain, dyspnea, and nausea and vomiting near the end of life: a systematic review. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000;20(5):374-387.
40. Familoni BO, Abell TL, Bhaskar SK, Voeller GR, Blair SR. Gastric electrical stimulation has an immediate antiemetic effect in patients with gastroparesis. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2006;53(6):1038-1046.
41. Saller R, Hellenbrecht D, Buhring M, Hess H. Enhancement of the antiemetic action of metoclopramide against cisplatin-induced emesis by transdermal electrical nerve stimulation. J Clin Pharmacol. 1986;26(2):115-119.
42. Lichter I. Results of antiemetic management in terminal illness. J Palliat Care. 1993;9(2):19-21.
43. Bruera E, Seifert L, Watanabe S, et al. Chronic nausea in advanced cancer patients: a retrospective assessment of a metoclopramide-based antiemetic regimen. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1996;11(3):147-153.
44. Glare P, Pereira G, Kristjanson LJ, Stockler M, Tattersall M. Systematic review of the efficacy of antiemetics in the treatment of nausea in patients with far-advanced cancer. Support Care Cancer. 2004;12(6):432-440.
45. Bruera ED, MacEachern TJ, Spachynski KA, et al. Comparison of the efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics of controlled release and immediate release metoclopramide for the management of chronic nausea in patients with advanced cancer. [Published correction appears in Cancer. 1995;75(7):1733]. Cancer. 1994;74(12):3204-3211.
46. Critchley P, Plach N, Grantham M, et al. Efficacy of haloperidol in the treatment of nausea and vomiting in the palliative patient: a systematic review. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001;22(2):631-634.
47. Ordog GJ, Vann PW, Owashi ND, Wasserberger J, Herman LS, Balasubramaniam S. Intravenous prochlorperazine for the rapid control of vomiting in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1984;13(4):253-258.
48. Kris MG, Hesketh PJ, Somerfield MR, et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology guideline for antiemetics in oncology: update 2006. J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(18):2932-2947.
49. Roberts JT, Priestman TJ. A review of ondansetron in the management of radiotherapy-induced emesis. Oncology. 1993;50(3):173-179.
50. Gan TJ, Meyer T, Apfel CC, et al. Consensus guidelines for managing postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg. 2003;97(1):62-71.
51. Sussman G, Shurman J, Creed MR, et al. Intravenous ondansetron for the control of opioid-induced nausea and vomiting. Clin Ther. 1999;21(7):1216-1227.
52. Ljutic D, Perkovic D, Rumboldt Z, Bagatin J, Hozo I, Pivac N. Comparison of ondansetron with metoclopramide in the symptomatic relief of uremia-induced nausea and vomiting. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2002;25(1):61-64.
53. Weschules DJ, Maxwell T, Reifsnyder J, Knowlton CH. Are newer, more expensive pharmacotherapy options associated with superior symptom control compared to less costly agents used in a collaborative practice setting? Am J Hosp Palliat Care. 2006;23(2):135-149.
54. Hardy J, Daly S, McQuade B, et al. A double-blind, randomised, parallel group, multinational, multicentre study comparing a single dose of ondansetron 24 mg p.o. with placebo and metoclopramide 10 mg t.d.s. p.o. in the treatment of opioid-induced nausea and emesis in cancer patients. Support Care Cancer. 2002;10 (3):231-236.
55. Cole RM, Robinson F, Harvey L, Trethowan K, Murdoch V. Successful control of intractable nausea and vomiting requiring combined ondansetron and haloperidol in a patient with advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1994;9(1):48-50.
56. Mystakidou K, Befon S, Liossi C, Vlachos L. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of tropisetron, metoclopramide, and chlorpromazine in the treatment of emesis associated with far advanced cancer. Cancer. 1998;83(6):1214-1223.
57. Mystakidou K, Befon S, Liossi C, Vlachos L. Comparison of tropisetron and chlorpromazine combinations in the control of nausea and vomiting of patients with advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1998;15(3):176-184.
58. Burmeister MA, Standl TG, Wintruff M, Brauer P, Blanc I, Schulte am Esch J. Dolasetron prophylaxis reduces nausea and postanaesthesia recovery time after remifentanil infusion during monitored anaesthesia care for extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. Br J Anaesth. 2003;90(2):194-198.
59. Kaufmann MA, Rosow C, Schnieper P, Schneider M. Prophylactic antiemetic therapy with patient-controlled analgesia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of droperidol, metoclopramide, and tropisetron. Anesth Analg. 1994;78(5):988-994.
60. Robbins EL, Nagel JD. Haloperidol parenterally for treatment of vomiting and nausea from gastrointestinal disorders in a group of geriatric patients: doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1975;23(1):38-41.
61. Barton MD, Libonati M, Cohen PJ. The use of haloperidol for treatment of postoperative nausea and vomiting - a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 1975;42(4):508-512.
62. Bruera E, Belzile M, Neumann C, Harsanyi Z, Babul N, Darke A. A doubleblind, crossover study of controlled-release metoclopramide and placebo for the chronic nausea and dyspepsia of advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000;19(6):427-435.
63. Gralla RJ, Itri LM, Pisko SE, et al. Antiemetic efficacy of high-dose metoclopramide: randomized trials with placebo and prochlorperazine in patients with chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. N Engl J Med. 1981;305(16):905-909.
64. Ernst AA, Weiss SJ, Park S, Takakuwa KM, Diercks DB. Prochlorperazine versus promethazine for uncomplicated nausea and vomiting in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2000;36(2):89-94.
65. Bardfeld PA. A controlled double-blind study of trimethobenzamide, prochlorperazine, and placebo. JAMA. 1966;196(9):796-798.
66. Pyykko I, Schalen L, Jantti V. Transdermally administered scopolamine vs. dimenhydrinate, I: effect on nausea and vertigo in experimentally induced motion sickness. Acta Otolaryngol. 1985;99(5-6):588-596.
67. Marty M, Pouillart P, Scholl S, et al. Comparison of the 5-hydroxytryptamine3 (serotonin) antagonist ondansetron (GR 38032F) with high-dose metoclopramide in the control of cisplatin-induced emesis. N Engl J Med. 1990;322(12):816-821.
68. Theobald DE, Kirsh KL, Holtsclaw E, Donaghy K, Passik SD. An open-label, crossover trial of mirtazapine (15 and 30 mg) in cancer patients with pain and other distressing symptoms. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2002;23(5):442-447.
69. Braude D, Soliz T, Crandall C, Hendey G, Andrews J, Weichenthal L. Antiemetics in the ED: a randomized controlled trial comparing 3 common agents. Am J Emerg Med. 2006;24(2):177-182.
70. Wickham R. Management of intractable nausea and vomiting. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2004;8(1):91-94.
71. Aldrete JA. Reduction of nausea and vomiting from epidural opioids by adding droperidol to the infusate in home-bound patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1995;10(7):544-547.
72. Walder AD, Aitkenhead AR. Antiemetic efficacy of metoclopramide when included in a patient-controlled analgesia infusion. Anaesthesia. 1994;49(9):804-806.
73. McGee JL, Alexander MR. Phenothiazine analgesia - fact or fantasy? Am J Hosp Pharm. 1979;36(5):633-640.
74. Starke PR, Weaver J, Chowdhury BA. Boxed warning added to promethazine labeling for pediatric use. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(25):2653.
75. Fallon MT, O'Neill B. Substitution of another opioid for morphine: opioid toxicity should be managed initially by decreasing the opioid dose. BMJ. 1998;317(7150):81.
76. Ashby MA, Martin P, Jackson KA. Opioid substitution to reduce adverse effects in cancer pain management. Med J Aust. 1999;170(2):68-71.
77. de Stoutz ND, Bruera E, Suarez-Almazor M. Opioid rotation for toxicity reduction in terminal cancer patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1995;10(5):378-384.
78. Liaw C-C, Chang H-K, Liau C-T, Huang J-S, Lin Y-C, Chen J-S. Reduced maintenance of complete protection from emesis for women during chemotherapy cycles. Am J Clin Oncol. 2003;26(1):12-15.
79. Malik IA, Khan WA, Qazilbash M, Ata E, Butt A, Khan MA. Clinical efficacy of lorazepam in prophylaxis of anticipatory, acute, and delayed nausea and vomiting induced by high doses of cisplatin. Am J Clin Oncol. 1995;18(2):170-175.
80. Simms SG, Rhodes VA, Madsen RW. Comparison of prochlorperazine and lorazepam antiemetic regimens in the control of postchemotherapy symptoms. Nurs Res. 1993;42(4):234-239.
81. Pick N, McDonald A, Bennett N, et al. Pulmonary aspiration in a long-term care setting: clinical and laboratory observations and an analysis of risk factors. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1996;44(7):763-768.
82. Ripamonti C, Mercadante S. Pathophysiology and management of malignant bowel obstruction. In: Doyle D, Hanks G, Cherny N, Calman K, eds. Oxford Textbook of Palliative Medicine. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004:496-507.
83. Blair SL, Chu DZ, Schwarz RE. Outcome of palliative operations for malignant bowel obstruction in patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis from nongynecological cancer. Ann Surg Oncol. 2001;8(8):632-637.
84. Lund B, Hansen M, Lundvall F, Nielsen NC, Sorensen BL, Hansen HH. Intestinal obstruction in patients with advanced carcinoma of the ovaries treated with combination chemotherapy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1989;169(3):213-218.
85. Song HY, Do YS, Han YM, et al. Covered, expandable esophageal metallic stent tubes: experiences in 119 patients. Radiology. 1994;193(3):689-695.
86. Baines M, Oliver DJ, Carter RL. Medical management of intestinal obstruction in patients with advanced malignant disease. Lancet. 1985;2(8462):990-993.
87. Mercadante S, Ferrera P, Villari P, Marrazzo A. Aggressive pharmacological treatment for reversing malignant bowel obstruction. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004;28(4):412-416.
88. Feuer DJ, Broadley KE. Corticosteroids for the resolution of malignant bowel obstruction in advanced gynaecological and gastrointestinal cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD001219.
89. Brooksbank MA, Game PA, Ashby MA. Palliative venting gastrostomy in malignant intestinal obstruction. Palliat Med. 2002;16(6):520-526.
90. Bruera E, Moyano JR, Sala R, et al. Dexamethasone in addition to metoclopramide for chronic nausea in patients with advanced cancer: a randomized controlled trial. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2004;28(4):381-388.
91. Grunberg SM, Deuson RR, Mavros P, et al. Incidence of chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis after modern antiemetics. Cancer. 2004;100(10):2261-2268.
92. Thompson DS. Mirtazapine for the treatment of depression and nausea in breast and gynecological oncology. Psychosomatics. 2000;41(4):356-359.
93. Flynn J, Hanif N. Nabilone for the management of intractable nausea and vomiting in terminally staged AIDS. J Palliat Care. 1992;8(2):46-47.
94. Beal JE, Olson R, Laubenstein L, et al. Dronabinol as a treatment for anorexia associated with weight loss in patients with AIDS. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1995; 10(2):89-97.
95. Hall W, Christie M, Currow D. Cannabinoids and cancer: causation, remediation, and palliation. Lancet Oncol. 2005;6(1):35-42.
96. Gonzalez-Rosales F, Walsh D. Intractable nausea and vomiting due to gastrointestinal mucosal metastases relieved by tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol). J Pain Symptom Manage. 1997;14(5):311-314.
97. Jackson WC, Tavernier L. Olanzapine for intractable nausea in palliative care patients. J Palliat Med. 2003;6(2):251-255.
98. Passik SD, Lundberg J, Kirsh KL, et al. A pilot exploration of the antiemetic activity of olanzapine for the relief of nausea in patients with advanced cancer and pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2002;23(6):526-532.
99. Srivastava M, Brito-Dellan N, Davis MP, Leach M, Lagman R. Olanzapine as an antiemetic in refractory nausea and vomiting in advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25(6):578-582.
100. Loprinzi CL, Ellison NM, Schaid DJ, et al. Controlled trial of megestrol acetate for the treatment of cancer anorexia and cachexia. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1990;82(13):1127-1132.
101. Traldi A, Vaccari GL, Davoli G. Use of the imide of N-phthalylglutamic acid (thalidomide) in the symptomatic therapy of vomiting of many patients with malignant neoplasms or caused by the administration of mechlorethamine HCl [in Italian]. Cancro. 1965;18(4):336-341.
102. Weschules DJ. Tolerability of the compound ABHR in hospice patients. J Palliat Med. 2005;8(6):1135-1143.
103. Mok T, Yeo W, Johnson P, et al. A double-blind placebo-controlled randomized study of Chinese herbal medicine as complementary therapy for reduction of chemotherapy-induced toxicity. Ann Oncol. 2007;18(4):768-774.
104. Vutyavanich T, Kraisarin T, Ruangsri R. Ginger for nausea and vomiting in pregnancy: randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;97(4):577-582.
105. Taixiang W, Munro AJ, Guanjian L. Chinese medical herbs for chemotherapy side effects in colorectal cancer patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(1):CD004540.
106. Pereira J, Bruera E. Successful management of intractable nausea with ondansetron: a case study. J Palliat Care. 1996;12(2):47-50.
107. Currow DC, Coughlan M, Fardell B, Cooney NJ. Use of ondansetron in palliative medicine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1997;13(5):302-307.
108. Porcel JM, Salud A, Porta J, Schoenenberger JA. Antiemetic efficacy of subcutaneous 5-HT3 receptor antagonists in terminal cancer patients. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1998;15(5):265-266.
109. Storey P, Hill HH Jr, St Louis RH, Tarver EE. Subcutaneous infusions for control of cancer symptoms. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1990;5(1):33-41.
110. Bernard SA, Bruera E. Drug interactions in palliative care. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(8):1780-1799.
111. Lawlor PG, Gagnon B, Mancini IL, et al. Occurrence, causes, and outcome of delirium in patients with advanced cancer. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(6):786-794.
112. Gagnon P, Allard P, Masse B, DeSerres M. Delirium in terminal cancer: a prospective study using daily screening, early diagnosis, and continuous monitoring. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2000;19(6):412-426.
113. Casarett DJ, Inouye SK. Diagnosis and management of delirium near the end of life. Ann Intern Med. 2001;135(1):32-40.
114. Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA, Balkin S, Siegal AP, Horwitz RI. Clarifying confusion: the confusion assessment method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113(12):941-948.
115. Fainsinger RL, Waller A, Bercovici M, et al. A multicentre international study of sedation for uncontrolled symptoms in terminally ill patients. Palliat Med. 2000;14(4):257-265.
116. Lo B, Rubenfeld G. Palliative sedation in dying patients: "we turn to it when everything else hasn't worked." JAMA. 2005;294(14):1810-1816.
117. Cowan JD, Walsh D. Terminal sedation in palliative medicine-definition and review of the literature. Support Care Cancer. 2001;9(6):403-407.
118. Lundstrom S, Zachrisson U, Furst CJ. When nothing helps: propofol as sedative and antiemetic in palliative cancer care. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2005;30(6):570-577.