Imaging body structure and mapping brain function: A historical approach

American Journal of Law and Medicine

Volumn 33, Issue 2-3, 2007, Pages 193-228

  Tovino, Stacey A ^a  

^a HAMLINE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN MAPPING; BRAIN REGION; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; FORENSIC MEDICINE; HUMAN; JURISPRUDENCE; LEGAL ASPECT; MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY; MEDICAL ETHICS; MEDICAL PRACTICE; NEUROIMAGING; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; TRADITIONAL MEDICINE; X RAY;

EID: 34548561245     PISSN: 00988588     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009885880703300203     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. David G. Norris, Principles of Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Brain Function, 23 J. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 794, 794 (2006).
2. See Stacey A. Tovino, Functional Neuroimaging Information: A Case for Neuro Exceptionalism?, 34 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. (forthcoming 2007) (manuscript at Part II, on file with author).
3. See, e.g., SANDRA J. ACKERMAN, HARD SCIENCE, HARD CHOICES: FACTS, ETHICS, AND POLICIES GUIDING BRAIN SCIENCE TODAY (2006);
4. MICHAEL S. GAZZANIGA, THE ETHICAL BRAIN (2005);
5. NEUROETHICS: DEFINING THE ISSUES IN THEORY, PRACTICE, AND POLICY (Judy Illes ed., 2006);
6. NEUROETHICS: MAPPING THE FIELD (Steven J. Marcus ed., 2002);
7. NEUROSCIENCE AND THE LAW: BRAIN, MIND, AND THE SCALES OF JUSTICE (Brent Garland ed., 2004);
8. DAI REES & STEVEN ROSE, THE NEW BRAIN SCIENCES: PERILS AND PROSPECTS (2004);
9. STEVEN ROSE, THE FUTURE OF THE BRAIN: THE PROMISE AND PERILS OF TOMORROW'S NEUROSCIENCE (2005);
10. LAURENCE TANCREDI, HARDWIRED BEHAVIOR: WHAT NEUROSCIENCE REVEALS ABOUT MORALITY (2005);
11. SEMIR ZEKI & OLIVER GOODENOUGH, LAW AND THE BRAIN (2006);
12. Symposium, Brain Imaging and the Law, 33 AM. J. L. & MED. (2007);
13. Symposium, Neuroethics, 32 J. MED. ETHICS 65 (2006);
14. Symposium, Neuroethics, AM. J. BIOETHICS, Mar.-Apr. 2005, at 1-63;
15. Symposium, Neuroethics, 50 BRAIN & COGNITION 341 (2002).
16. An examination of other methods of brain study, including lesion studies, electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and computer-assisted tomography, likely would reveal similar themes. See generally BRAIN MAPPING: THE METHODS (Arthur W. Toga & John C. Mazziotta eds., 2d ed. 2002) (providing background information on various methods of brain study).
17. See infra notes 31-39.
18. See infra note 42.
19. See infra notes 41-43.
20. See infra notes 41-43, 139-147.
21. See infra notes 95-102 and accompanying text.
22. See infra notes 95, 127-132.
23. See infra notes 88, 90.
24. See infra notes 116-123 and accompanying text.
25. See infra notes 123-119 and accompanying text.
26. See infra notes 158-168.
27. See infra note 165.
28. See infra notes 169-184.
29. See infra note 184.
30. See infra notes 213-232.
31. See infra notes 194 and 209.
32. See infra notes 194-210.
33. See infra notes 218-234.
34. See Parts IV and V, infra.
35. See Parts VI(A)-(D), infra.
36. WILLIAM R. UTTAL, THE NEW PHRENOLOGY: THE LIMITS OF LOCALIZING COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BRAIN 1 (2001).
37. CHRISTINE TEMPLE, THE BRAIN: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BRAIN AND BEHAVIOUR 22-23 (1993);
38. WILLIAM J. WINSLADE, CONFRONTING TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY: DEVASTATION, HOPE, AND HEALING 18 (1998).
39. Hippocrates, On Injuries of the Head, in THE GENUINE WORKS OF HIPPOCRATES 157-58 (trans. and ed. Francis Adams, 1868);
40. see also John C. Marshall & Gereon R. Fink, Cerebral Localization, Then and Now, 20 NEUROIMAGE S2, S2 (2003) ("Hippocrates . . . was well aware that the brain was the material substrate underlying all cognitive, affective, and conative powers and processes.").
41. WALTHER RIESE, A HISTORY OF NEUROLOGY 81 (1959).
42. Id.
43. Arthur L. Benton & Robert J. Joynt, Early Descriptions of Aphasia, 3 Archives OF NEUROLOGY, Aug. 1960, at 209.
44. Sven-Göran Fransson & Andrea Rubboli, Antonio Maria Valsalva, 26 CLINICAL CARDIOLOGY 102 (Feb. 2003).
45. MADELEINE B. STERN, HEADS AND HEADLINES: THE PHRENOLOGICAL FOWLERS X (1971).
46. JOHN D. DAVIES, PHRENOLOGY: FAD AND SCIENCE;
47. A 19TH-CENTURY AMERICAN CRUSADE 6-7 (1955);
48. Pierre Schlag, Law and Phrenology, 110 HARV. L. REV. 877, 880 (1997).
49. Id.
50. Franz Josef Gall, Letter from Dr. F. J. Gall to Joseph Fr[eiherr] von Retzer, upon the Functions of the Brain, in Man and Animals, in DAVID G. GOYDER, MY BATTLE FOR LIFE: THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF A PHRENOLOGIST 143-52 (1857).
51. MADELEINE B. STERN, A PHRENOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICANS X (1982); RIESE, supra note 27, at 92; STERN, supra note 31, at xi.
52. Gall, Letter, supra note 34, at 152.
53. Andrew E. Norman, Introduction to ORSON SQUIRE FOWLER & LORENZO NILES FOWLER, PHRENOLOGY: A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO YOUR HEAD, at vi (1969).
54. TEMPLE, supra note 25, at 26; DAVIES, supra note 32, at 7; Norman, supra note 37, at vi.
55. The word phrenology is derived from two Greek words meaning mind and discourse. JOHANN GASPAR SPURZHEIM, OUTLINES OF PHRENOLOGY 1 (1832), reprinted in SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY, 1750-1920 (Daniel N. Robinson ed., 1978).
56. FRANZ JOSEF GALL & JOHANN GASPAR SPURZHEIM, ANATOMIE ET PHYSIOLOGIE DU SYSTÈME NERVEUX EN GÉNÉRAL ET DU CERVEAU EN PARTICULIER (vol. 1, 1810);
57. FRANZ JOSEF GALL & JOHANN GASPAR SPURZHEIM, ANATOMIE ET PHYSIOLOGIE DU SYSTÈME NERVEUX EN GÉNÉRAL ET DU CERVEAU EN PARTICULIER (vol. 2, 1812);
58. FRANZ JOSEF GALL, ANATOMIE ET PHYSIOLOGIE DU SYSTÈME NERVEUX EN GÉNÉRAL ET DU CERVEAU EN PARTICULIER (vol. 3, 1818);
59. FRANZ JOSEF GALL, ANATOMIE ET PHYSIOLOGIE DU SYSTÈME NERVEUX EN GÉNÉRAL ET DU CERVEAU EN PARTICULIER (vol. 4, 1819).
60. FRANZ JOSEF GALL, SUR LES FONCTIONS DU CERVEAU ET SUR CELLES DE CHACUNE DE CES PARTIES (vol. 1-6, 1822-25);
61. FRANZ JOSEF GALL, ON THE FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN AND OF EACH OF ITS PARTS (Winslow Lewis trans., vol. 1-6, 1835).
62. DAVIES, supra note 32, at 8.
63. Id.
64. Id.
65. Id.
66. Id. at 39-40.
67. Id. at 40.
68. Id. at 8.
69. JOHANN GASPAR SPURZHEIM, THE PHYSIOGNOMICAL SYSTEM OF DRS. GALL AND SPURZHEIM: FOUNDED ON AN ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL, AND OF THE BRAIN IN PARTICULAR, AND INDICATING THE DISPOSITIONS AND MANIFESTATIONS OF THE MIND (1815).
70. DAVIES, supra note 32, at 8.
71. SPURZHEIM, supra note 23, at 25-72 (identifying thirty-five different faculties).
72. John Gordon, The Doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim, 25 EDINBURGH REV. 263 (June 1815).
73. DAVIES, supra note 32, at 10.
74. TEMPLE, supra note 25, at 27.
75. Id.
76. STERN, supra note 35, at x.
77. NORMAN, supra note 37, at vi-vii.; DAVIES, supra note 32, at 31; STERN, supra note 35, at xiii.
78. NORMAN, supra note 37, at vii; DAVIES, supra note 32, at 32.
79. NORMAN, supra note 37, at vii.
80. STERN, supra note 35, at xiv; NORMAN, supra note 37, at vi.
81. E-mail from Joel Huizenga, Chief Executive Officer, No Lie MRI, to Stacey Tovino (May 23, 2006; 12:36:00 p.m.) (on file with Boston University School of Law). See generally No Lie MRI, available at http://www.noliemri. com/default.htm (last visited Oct. 21, 2006).
82. STERN, supra note 31, at 17.
83. Id.
84. Id.
85. Id.
86. NORMAN, supra note 37, at xviii.
87. CHRISTINE TEMPLE, DEVELOPMENTAL COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY 255 (1997).
88. NORMAN, supra note 37, at xviii.
89. Id.
90. Id. at xix.
91. ORSON SQUIRE FOWLER & LORENZO NILES FOWLER, PHRENOLOGY PROVED, ILLUSTRATED, AND APPLIED, ACCOMPANIED BY A CHART, TOGETHER WITH A VIEW OF THE MORAL AND THEOLOGICAL BEARING OF THE SCIENCE (1836).
92. STERN, supra note 35, at xiii. The Journal was edited by the Fowler brothers and, eventually, their children until it ceased publication in 1911. Id.
93. ORSON SQUIRE FOWLER & LORENZO NILES FOWLER, PHRENOLOGY: A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO YOUR HEAD 85 (1969).
94. Id.
95. Id. at 101.
96. Id.
97. STERN, supra note 35, at xiv, xviii, 14-19, 33-39.
98. DAVIES, supra note 32, at 123-24; NORMAN, supra note 37, at x.
99. STERN, supra note 31, at 18.
100. STERN, supra note 35, at xiv.
101. Id. at xv.
102. Id.
103. Id.
104. Id. at xviii.
105. Id.
106. Id.
107. Id. at xix.
108. Id.
109. Id. at xi.
110. FOWLER & FOWLER, supra note 71, at 200; STERN, supra note 35, at xi.
111. Id.
112. NORMAN, supra note 37, at x.
113. DAVIES, supra note 32, at 39; STERN, supra note 35, at xi.
114. STERN, supra note 31, at xiv.
115. 5 Miss. 459, 1840 WL 2421 (Miss. Err. & App. 1840).
116. Id. at *6. Counsel also recognized, however, that not everyone agreed with the principles of phrenology: "But whether phrenology is or is not the only true physiology of the brain . . ." Id.
117. 2 Ohio St. 54 (1853).
118. Id.
119. Id. at 60.
120. Id. ("Whether phrenology is a science or a delusion, we shall not judicially undertake to pronounce. . . . "). Five years after Farrer, Judge Ellsworth of the Supreme Court of Errors of Connecticut continued to struggle with the issue whether the scales of justice could rely on phrenology: "The particular physical theory too of the human mind adopted by some persons, very greatly influences their views about insanity; as for instance, the phrenologists, who maintain that the mind is not a unit . . ." In re Dunham, 27 Conn. 192, 1858 WL 1044, *6 (Conn. 1858) ("as for instance, the phrenologists, who maintain that the mind is not a unit, and that it often is diseased and enfeebled in some of its faculties or organs of manifestation while it is sound and healthy in others, and as to these sound faculties is properly chargeable with responsibility for their exercise while it is not as to the others.").
121. Russell v. Russell, 37 Pa. Super. 348, 351 (1908).
122. See, e.g., United States v. Freeman, 357 F.2d 606, 616 (2d Cir. 1966) ("In the pre-M'Naghten period, the concepts of phrenology and monomania were being developed and had significant influence on the right and wrong test. Phrenologists believed that the human brain was divided into thirty-five separate areas, each with its own peculiar mental function. The sixth area for example, was designated 'destructiveness.' It was located, we are told, above the ear because this was the widest part of the skull of the carnivorous animals."); Anderson v. State, 276 So.2d 17, 20 (1973) (same); State v. Johnson, 399 A.2d 469, 472 & n.2 (R.I. 1979) (same).
123. SCOTT A. HUETTEL ET AL., FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 1 (2004); DAVIES, supra note 32, at 174.
124. DAVIES, supra note 32, at 174.
125. Id.
126. THOMAS SEWALL, AN EXAMINATION OF PHRENOLOGY (1838).
127. Id.; DAVIES, supra note 32, at 141.
128. RIESE, supra note 27, at 96.
129. HUETTEL ET AL., supra note 103, at 1. See generally Schlag, supra note 32, at 886-96 (1997) (examining the critique of phrenology).
130. STERN, supra note 35, at xix.