"She is hostile to our ways": First nations girls sentenced to the Ontario training school for girls, 1933-1960

Law and History Review

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 59-96

  Sangster, Joan ^a  

^a TRENT UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34548552453     PISSN: 07382480     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/744155     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. John Milloy, A National Crime: The Canadian Government and the Residential School System (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1999), 33
2. John Comaroff and Jean Comaroff, Ethnicity and the Historical Imagination (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992), 289
3. The literature on these endeavors is extensive. For some examples, see Sarah Carter, "First Nations Women of Prairie Canada in the Early Reserve Years, the 1870s to the 1920s: A Preliminary Inquiry," and Jo-Anne Fiske, "Gender and the Paradox of Residential Education in Carrier Society," in Women of the First Nations: Power, Wisdom, Strength, ed. Christine Miller and Patricia Chuckryk (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1996), 51-76, 167-82
4. Pamela White, "Restructuring the Domestic Sphere - Prairie Indian Women on Reserves: Image, Ideology and State Policy, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., McGill, 1987)
5. Mariana Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap, and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885-1925 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1991)
6. Carolyn Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem: The Perils and Pleasures of the City, 1880-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996)
7. J. R. Miller, Shingwauk's Vision: A History of Native Residential Schools (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1966)
8. Dorothy Chunn, "Regulating the Poor in Ontario: From Police Courts to Family Courts," Canadian Journal of Family Law 6.1 (1987): 85-102
9. Carolyn Strange and Tina Loo, Making Good: Law and Moral Regulation in Canada, 1876-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press), 149
10. Patricia Monture, "A Vicious Circle: Child Welfare and the First Nations," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 3.1 (1989): 1-17
11. Emily Carasco, "Canadian Native Children: Have Child Welfare Laws Broken the Circle?" Canadian Journal of Family Law 1 (1986): 111-21
12. Marlee Kline, "Complicating the Ideology of Motherhood: Child Welfare Law and First Nations Women," in Mothers in Law: Feminist Theory and the Legal Regulation of Motherhood, ed. Martha Albertson Fineman and Isabel Karpin (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 118-41
13. Custody battles persist to this day. See Kirk Makin, "Native Loses Custody Fight with White Couple," Globe and Mail, 4 May 1999
14. For this issue, see Sherene H. Razack, Looking White People in the Eye: Gender, Race and Culture in Courtrooms and Classrooms (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), 8-10
15. For a discussion of race and feminist theory, see Adrien K. Wing, ed., Critical Race Feminism: A Reader (New York: New York University Press, 1997)
16. Marlee Kline, "Race, Racism and Feminist Legal Theory," Hazard Women's Law Journal 12 (1989): 115-50
17. On ideology, see Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw, "Race, Reform, and Retrenchment: Transformation and Legitimation in Antidiscrimination Law," Harvard Law Review 101.7 (May 1988): 1331-87
18. In an examination of First Nations, Asian Canadian, and Carribean Canadian women, Enakshi Dua argues that hostility to such women was more destructive and totalizing than the more benign regulation of white working-class women because women of color were considered a "triple threat to the nation." Enakshi Dua, "Beyond Diversity: Exploring the Ways in Which the Discourse of Race Has Shaped the Institution of the Nuclear Family," in Scratching the Surface: Canadian Anti-Racist Feminist Thought, ed. Enakshi Dua and Angela Robertson (Toronto: Women's Press, 1999), 237-60, especially 255
19. In slight contrast, Vic Satzewich and Li Zong argue that assimilation, not genocide, was always the intent of colonialism, though this could still produce a form of "cultural genocide." Vic Satzewich and Li Zong, "Social Control and the Historical Construction of 'Race,'" in Social Control in Canada: A Reader on the Social Construction of Deviance, ed. Bernard Schissel and Linda Mahood (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996), 263-87
20. David Roediger quoting Tera Hunter in "Race and the Working-Class Past in the United States: Multiple Identities and the Future of Labor History," International Review of Social History 38 (1993): 127-43
21. See also Razack, Looking White People in the Eye, 11-12
22. See, for example, Patricia Hill Collins, "It's All in the Family: Intersections of Gender, Race, and Nation," Hypatia 13.3 (Summer 1998): 62-81
23. Kimberlé Crenshaw, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity, Politics and Violence Against Women of Color," Stanford Law Review 43 (July 1991): 1241-99
24. and "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Class," Chicago Legal Forum (1989): 139-68
25. Native girls could also be charged under the Indian Act, which prohibited things such as the consumption of alcohol and "profligacy." However, the other statutes provided all the latitude that judges needed. The Juvenile Delinquents Act, chap. 40, 7-8 Edward VII, 1908
26. Statutes of Ontario, The Training School Act, chap. 51, 1939
27. On the Juvenile Delinquent Act, see Canadian Welfare Council, The Juvenile Court in Law (Ottawa: Canadian Welfare Council, 1941)
28. Neil Sutherland, Children in English-Canadian Society: Framing the Twentieth-Century Consensus (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978)
29. Marge Reitsma-Street, "More Control than Care: A Critique of Historical and Contemporary Laws for Delinquency and the Neglect of Children in Ontario," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 3.1 (1989-90): 510-30
30. Jean Trépanier, "Origins of the Juvenile Delinquents Act of 1908," in Dimensions of Childhood: Essays on the History of Children and Youth in Canada, ed. Russell Smandych, Gordon Dodds, and Alvin Esau (Winnipeg: Legal Research Institute, 1991), 205-32
31. On the 1924 amendment adding sexual immorality, see Bruno Théorêt, "Régulation juridique pénale des mineures et discrimination à l'égard des filles: la clause de 1924 amendment la Loi sur les jeunes délinquents," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 4 (1990-91): 539-55
32. The division of powers made the JDA in Canada somewhat different than U.S. counterparts, but for discussion of the latitude in American juvenile justice with regards to sexual immorality, see early comments by Paul Tappan, Delinquent Girls in Court (New York: Columbia University Press, 1947)
33. and later analysis by Steven Schlossman and Stephanie Wallach, "The Crime of Precocious Sexuality: Female Juvenile Delinquency in the Progressive Era," Harvard Educational Review 48 (Feb. 1978): 65-95
34. Meda Chesney-Lind, "Judicial Enforcement of the Female Sex Role, the Family Court and Female Delinquency," Issues in Criminology 8 (1973): 51-70
35. As Richard Evans points out, historians have long attempted to interrogate the limitations of their sources. See Evans, In Defence of History (London: Granta Books, 1997), 147
36. For some discussion of this issue, see Ruth Roach Pierson, "Experience, Difference, Dominance and Voice in the Writing of Canadian Women's History," in Writing Women's History: International Perspectives, ed. Karen Offen, Ruth Roach Pierson, and Jane Rendall (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), 79-106
37. and Rahda Jhappan, "Post-Modern Race and Gender Essentialism or a Post-Mortem of Scholarship," Studies in Political Economy 51 (Fall 1996): 15-63
38. For example, Mary Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995)
39. Ruth Alexander, The Girl Problem: Female Sexual Delinquency in New York, 1880-1930 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995)
40. Strange, Toronto's Girl Problem
41. The literature on this is vast, encompassing labor, immigration, and criminal justice history, to name some areas. See, for example, Walter Tarnopolsky, Discrimination and The Law in Canada (Toronto: Richard De Boo, 1982)
42. James W. St. G. Walker, "Race" Rights and the Law in the Supreme Court of Canada, Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History (Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1997), 12-50
43. Constance Backhouse, Colour Coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900-1950 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999)
44. Ian Haney Lopez, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: New York University Press, 1996)
45. See also Carol A. Aylward, Canadian Critical Race Theory: Racism and the Law (Halifax: Fernwood, 1999). Because I take the construction of both "race" and words like "immorality" for granted, I have not used quotation marks throughout the article
46. Floya Anthias, "Race and Class Revisited," Sociological Review 28.1 (1990): 19-42
47. Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davis, eds., Racialized Boundaries: Race, Nation, Gender, Colour, and Class and the Anti-Racist Struggle (London: Routledge, 1992)
48. Anne Stoler, "Making Empire Respectable: The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in Twentieth-Century Colonial Cultures," American Ethnologist 16.4 (1989): 634-59
49. Constance Backhouse, "The White Women's Labor Laws: Anti-Chinese Racism in Early Twentieth-Century Canada," Law and History Review 14 (1996): 315-68
50. Sexuality and race also converged in eugenic discourse and legislation. See Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1884-1945 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1990)
51. The literature here is extensive. For some discussion of the imposition of sexual and familial codes, including by means of the Indian Act, see Kathleen Jamieson, Indian Women and the Law in Canada: Citizens Minus (Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services, 1978)
52. Janet Silman, Enough Is Enough: Aboriginal Women Speak Out (Toronto: Women's Press, 1987)
53. Sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society (Winnipeg: Watson and Dwyer, 1979)
54. Karen Anderson, Chain Her by One Foot: The Subjugation of Women in Seventeenth-Century New France (New York: Routledge, 1991)
55. Carol Devens, Countering Colonization: Native American Women and the Great Lakes Missions, 1630-1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992)
56. Jean Barman, "Taming Aboriginal Sexuality: Gender, Power and Race in British Columbia," B. C. Studies 115/116 (1997-98): 237-67
57. Scott Clark, "Aboriginal Customary Law Literature Review," unpublished paper for the Manitoba Public Inquiry into the Administration of Justice for Aboriginal Peoples, 1990
58. Bryan Keon-Cohen, "Native Justice in Australia, Canada and the U.S.A.: A Comparative Analysis," in Native People and Justice in Canada part 2, ed. Canadian Legal Aid Bulletin (1982): 187-258
59. Vic Satzewich, "Where's the Beef? Cattle Killing, Rations Policy and First Nations 'Criminality' in Southern Alberta, 1892-95," Journal of Historical Sociology 9.2 (1996): 188-212
60. R. C. Macleod and Heather Rollason, "Restrain the Lawless 'Savage': Native Defendants in Criminal Courts of the North West Territories," Journal of Historical Sociology 10.2 (1997): 157-83
61. Tina Loo, "Tonto's Due: Law, Culture and Colonization in British Columbia," in Hamar Forster and John McLaren, eds., Essays in the History of Canadian Law: British Columbia and the Yukon (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), 128-70
62. Patricia Monture-Angus, Thunder in My Soul: A Mohawk Woman Speaks (Halifax: Fernwood Books, 1995)
63. Rupert Ross, Dancing with a Ghost: Exploring Indian Reality (Markam: Octopus Books, 1992)
64. Kjikeptin Alex Denny, "Beyond the Marshall Inquiry: An Alternative Mi'kmaq Worldview and Justice System," in Elusive Justice: Beyond the Marshall Inquiry, ed. Joy Mannette (Halifax: Fernwood Books, 1992), 103-8
65. E. J. Dickson-Gilmore, "Finding the Ways of the Ancestors: Cultural Change and the Invention of Tradition in the Development of Separate Legal Systems," Canadian Journal of Criminology (July-Oct. 1992): 479-502
66. Jo-Anne Fiske, "From Customary Law to Oral Traditions," B.C. Studies 115/116 (1997-98): 267-88
67. Joan Ryan, Doing Things the Right Way: Dene Traditional Justice in Lac La Martre, NWT (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1995)
68. Jamieson, Indian Women and the Law
69. Winona Stevenson, "Colonialism and First Nations Women in Canada," in Scratching the Surface, 49-82
70. Maysie Rogers, "Indian Affairs," Canadian Welfare, 1 March 1951, 18
71. Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons, 1946-48, quoted in H. B. Hawthorn, A Survey of the Indians of Canada (Ottawa: Indian Affairs Branch, 1967), pt. 1, 326
72. Hawthorn, A Survey, 329
73. Mary Woodward, "Juvenile Delinquency among Indian Girls" (M.A. thesis, University of British Columbia, 1949), 3, 12
74. Peggy Pascoe argues that nineteenth-century "biological" or "scientific" racism was challenged in social science and legal discourses after the 1920s by those who argued that "culture," not race, was all important. However, these theories laid the basis for a new "modernist ideology" that reinscribed racism in new ways. Peggy Pascoe, "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of 'Race' in Twentieth-Century America," in Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History, ed. Martha Hodes (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 464-90
75. Some anthropological studies of this period reinforced similar assumptions; they noted that acculturation of Natives had led to distant parents and more "passive" children, that communities were in a state of disintegration, and that patterns of illegitimacy prevailed despite norms to the contrary. John Honigmann, "Social Disintegration in Five Northern Communities," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 2 (1965): 199-214
76. Philip Bock, "Patterns of Illegitimacy on a Canadian Indian Reserve: 1860-1960," Journal of Marriage and the Family 126 (May 1964): 143-48
77. Stephen Boggs, "Culture Change and the Personality of Ojibwa Children," American Anthropologist 60 (1958): 47-52
78. Stella Hostbjor, "Social Services to the Indian Unmarried Mother," Child Welfare (May 1961): 7-9
79. On working-class girls and sex delinquency, see Indiana Matters, "Sinners or Sinned Against? Historical Aspects of Female Juvenile Delinquency in British Columbia," in Not Just Pin Money: Selected Essays on the History of Women's Work in British Columbia, ed. Barbara Latham and Roberta Pazdro (Victoria: Camosun College, 1984), 265-77
80. Claims that promiscuous or amoral sexuality in Native cultures had to be abolished for the sake of "civilization" had been voiced since the nineteenth century: Barman, "Taming Aboriginal Sexuality"
81. Katherine M. B. Osburn, "To Build Up the Morals of the Tribe: Southern Ute Women's Sexual Behaviour and the Office of Indian Affairs, 1895-1932," Journal of Women's History 9.3 (1997): 11-26
82. Sarah Carter, "Categories and Terrains of Exclusion: Constructing the 'Indian' Woman in the Early Settlement Era in Western Canada," Great Plains Quarterly 13.3 (1993): 147-61
83. For a more international analysis of the anthropological gaze on indigenous women, see Sharon Tiffany and Kathleen Adams, The Wild Woman: An Inquiry into the Anthropology of an Idea (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Company, 1985)
84. Mary Woodward, "Juvenile Delinquency."
85. Clare Brant, "Native Ethics and Rules of Behaviour," Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 35 (1990): 534-39
86. U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, "Report on Juvenile Delinquency Among the Indians" (Washington, 1956), 8
87. Rogers, "Indian Affairs," 23
88. Dorothy Chunn, "Secrets and Lies: The Criminalization of Incest and the (Re)formation of the 'Private' in British Columbia, 1890-1940," paper presented at Canadian Law and Society Association, St. Johns, June 1997
89. Joan Sangster, "Masking and Unmasking the Sexual Abuse of Children: Violence against Children in the 'Badlands' of Ontario, 1916-30," Journal of Family History 25.4 (2000): 504-26
90. On the material and social context of criminalization, and similar examples to these of non-Native girls, see Joan Sangster, "Girls in Conflict with the Law: Exploring the Construction of Female 'Delinquency' in Ontario, 1940-60," Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 12.1 (2000): 24-25
91. Tamara Myers, "The Voluntary Delinquent," Canadian Historical Review 80.2 (1999): 242-68
92. Franca Iacovetta, "Parents, Daughters, and Family Court Intrusions into Working-Class Life," in On the Case: Explorations in Social History, ed. Franca Iacovetta and Wendy Mitchinson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), 312-37
93. Theft was only a concern in a minority of cases. This stands in contrast to the study of a mixed-race girls reform school in South Africa where African girls were more likely to be policed for theft, white girls for sexual immorality. Linda Chisholm, "Gender and Deviance in South African Industrial Schools and Reformatories for Girls, 1911-34," in Women and Gender in South Africa to 1945, ed. Cheryl Walker (Cape Town: David Philip, 1990) 293-312
94. As current authors note, the stereotype of Native peoples as alcoholics still has an effect on court cases involving women. See Teressa Nahanee, "Sexual Assault of Inuit Females: A Comment on 'Cultural Bias,'" in Confronting Sexual Assault: A Decade of Legal and Social Change, ed. Julian Roberts and Renate M. Mohr (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 192-204
95. Odem, Delinquent Daughters
96. Joan Sangster, "Incarcerating 'Bad Girls': The Regulation of Sexuality Through the Female Refuges Act in Ontario, 1920-45," Journal of the History of Sexuality 7.2 (October 1996): 239-75
97. Sally Weaver, "The Iroquois: The Consolidation of the Grand River Reserve in the Mid-Nineteenth Century," and "The Iroquois: The Grand River Reserve, 1875-1945," in Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations, ed. Edward Rogers and Donald Smith (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1994), 213-57
98. Peter Schmaltz, The Ojibwa of Southern Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996)
99. Anastasia M. Shkilnyk, A Poison Stronger than Love: The Destruction of an Ojibwa Community (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985)
100. Regina Flannery, Ellen Smallboy: Glimpses of a Cree Woman's Life (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1995)
101. Edward Rogers, The Round Lake Ojibwa (Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, 1962)
102. Loo, "Tonto's Due."
103. See also Robin Brownlie, "A Fatherly Eye: Two Indian Agents on Georgian Bay, 1918-39" (Ph.D. diss., University of Toronto, 1996)
104. and on political integration, Menno Boldt, Surviving as Indians: The Challenge of Self-Government (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993)
105. For a related view of American Tribal Courts, see Frederick Hoxie, "Towards a 'New' North American Indian Legal History," Symposium on Contemporary and Historical Issues in Legal Pluralism: Prairie and Northern Canada, November 1992 (Faculty of Law, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg), 7
106. Jennifer Koshan, "The Sounds of Silence: The Public/Private Dichotomy, Violence, and Aboriginal Women," in Challenging the Public/Private Divide: Feminism, Law and Public Policy, ed. Susan Boyd (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997): 87-109
107. Nahanee, "Sexual Assault of Innuit Females," 192-204
108. James Frideres, Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts (Scarborough: Prentice Hall, 1993), 148-52. In 1966, 69 percent of Ontario Native peoples still lived on reserves, 30 percent of Indian bands were in "remote" areas, and 45 per cent in rural areas
109. Joan Sangster, "Criminalizing the Colonized: Ontario Native Women Confront the Criminal Justice System, 1920-60," Canadian Historical Review 80.1 (March 1999): 32-60. In three of the OTSG cases of First Nations girls, it is clear the Indian agent initiated the charge; in one case he supported it strongly. In other cases, he was sometimes called on to testify
110. Clare Brant's training was in mainstream psychiatry, and so, for instance, he accepts some prevailing definitions of delinquency, such as the equation of illegitimate pregnancies with girls' delinquency. But Brant also developed new theories, based on his own medical and political experiences. He was influenced by his wide reading of anthropological literature, including anthropologists such as Rosalie Wax and Robert Thomas, "American Indians and White People," Phylon 22.4 (1961): 305-17
111. Brant also influenced the writing of Rupert Ross, Dancing with a Ghost and Returning to the Teaching: Exploring Aboriginal Justice (Toronto: Penguin, 1996)
112. TUA, Brant, Collection
113. Clare Brant and P. G. R. Patterson, "Native Child Rearing Practices, Their Role in Mental Health," unpublished paper, 108
114. Brant's work was politically important as it posited an alternative understanding of Aboriginally, countering a pejorative identity for Native peoples. As Kay Anderson argues, however, we should also avoid "reifying" aspects of Aboriginal identity, which is not an unchanging "stable heritage from the past" but a cultural and political creation, framed by and within asymmetrical power relations. Kay Anderson, "Constructing Geographies: 'Race,' Place and the Making of Sydney's Aboriginal Redfern," in Constructions of Race, Place and Nation, ed. Peter Jackson and Jan Penrose (London: UCL Press, 1993), 96
115. Brant and Patterson, "Native Child Rearing Practices," 112
116. TUA, Brant, Collection. "Native Ethics and Rules of Behaviour."
117. Carl Grandstaff, Wilda Galloway, Joanne Nixon, "Racial and Cultural Identification among Canadian Indian Children," Phylon 34 (1973): 368-77
118. This study was modeled on one pioneered by Afro-American psychologists Kenneth Clark and Maime Clark, who were trained in traditional theory but also committed to progressive racial politics. See Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Children, Race and Power: Kenneth and Mamie Clark's Northside Clinic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1996)
119. "Communication Patterns in Indians: Verbal and Non-Verbal," Annals of Sex Research 6.4 (1993): 259-69
120. See also his "Self-Esteem and Shyness," 148-53
121. For this argument in relation to health care, see Mary-Ellen Kelm, Colonizing Bodies: Aboriginal Health and Healing in British Columbia, 1900-50 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1998), 175
122. James Trent, Inventing the Feeble Minded: A History of Mental Retardation in the U.S. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994)
123. Steven Noll, "The Sterilization of Willie Mallory," in "Bad Mothers": The Politics of Blame in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Molly Ladd-Taylor and Lauri Umansky (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 41-57
124. Nicole Hann Rafter, "Introduction," in White Trash: The Eugenic Family Studies, 1877-1919, ed. Nicole Hann Rafter (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988)
125. McLaren, Our Own Master Race
126. On the reproduction of class and patriarchal relations in forensic testing, see Dorothy Chunn and Robert Menzies, "Gender, Madness and Crime: The Reproduction of Patriarchal and Class Relations in a Psychiatric Court Clinic," Journal of Human Justice 1.2 (1990): 33-54
127. Jennifer Stephen, "'Factory Girls' and the Toronto Psychiatric Clinic," in Law, Society and the State: Essays in Modern Legal History, ed. Susan Binnie and Louis Knafla (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995), 405-37
128. Stephen deals with the period of eugenic popularity in the 1920s. For similar comments on psychiatry, class, and sexuality, see Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender and Power in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), chap. 7
129. Keim, Colonizing Bodies, 174
130. The terms "awls" and "runs" were those used by staff and government officials. On regulation and resistance in other reform schools, see Kerry Wimhurst, "Control and Resistance: Reformatory Girls in Late Nineteenth-Century South Australia," Journal of Social History 18 (1984): 273-87
131. Susan Cahn, "Spirited Youth of Fiends Incarnate: The Samarcand Arson Case and Female Adolescence in the American South," Journal of Women's History 9.4 (1998): 152-80
132. Tamara Myers and Joan Sangster, "Retorts, Runaways and Riots: Resistence in Reform Schools for Girls in Ontario and Quebec, 1920-60," Journal of Social History 2001 (Spring 2001): 669-97
133. Himani Bannerji, Thinking Through: Essays on Feminism, Marxism and Anti-Racism (Toronto: Women's Press, 1995), 37. While these observations relate to racism, is it possible that they also provide some insight into other, non-Native OTSG girls who too felt diminished, stigmatized, and denigrated?
134. TUA, Brant, Collection. "Suicide in the North American Indian: Causes and Prevention," 170-81
135. TUA, Brant, Collection. "Inquiry - Suicides at the Prison for Women." 205
136. On the disjuncture between medical and penal staff, see Stephen Watson, "Applying Foucault: Some Problems Encountered in the Application of Foucault's Methods to the History of Medicine in Prisons," in Reassessing Foucault: Power, Medicine and the Body, ed. Colin Jones and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1994), 132