The bipolar spectrum: History, description, boundaries, and validity

Handbook of Bipolar Disorder: Diagnosis and Therapeutic Approaches

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 49-68

  Akiskal, Hagop S ^a  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548397987     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (110)

1. Akiskal HS. The bipolar spectrum: new concepts in classification and diagnosis. In: Grinspoon L, ed. Psychiatry Update: The American Psychiatric Association Annual Review. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1983:271-292.
2. Akiskal HS. Classification, diagnosis and boundaries of bipolar disorders. In: Maj M, Akiskal HS, Lopez-Ibor JJ, Sartorius N, eds. Bipolar Disorder. London: John Wiley & Sons, 2002:1-52.
3. Akiskal HS, ed. Bipolarity: Beyond Classic Mania. WB Saunders, Psychiatric Clinics of North America, September 1999.
4. World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992.
5. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Ed. 4 Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington DC: APA Press, 2000.
6. Akiskal HS, Mallya G. Criteria for the "soft" bipolar spectrum: treatment implications. Psychopharmacol Bull 1987; 23:68-73.
7. Akiskal HS, Pinto O. The evolving bipolar spectrum: prototypes I, II, III, IV. Psychiatr Clin N Am 1999; 22:517-534.
8. Akiskal HS. The prevalent clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders: Beyond DSM-IV. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16(suppl 1):4s-14s.
9. Akiskal HS, Bourgeois ML, Angst J, Post R, Moller HJ, Hirschfeld RMA. Re-evaluating the prevalence of and diagnostic composition within the broad clinical spectrum of bipolar disorders. J Affect Disord 2000; 59(suppl 1):5s-30s.
10. Akiskal HS. The bipolar spectrum in psychiatric and general medical practice. Primary Psychiatry 2004; 11:35-40.
11. Akiskal HS, ed. Validating the Bipolar Spectrum. J Affect Disord 2003;73:1-205.
12. Akiskal HS, Djenderedjian AH, Rosenthal RH, Khani MK. Cyclothymic disorder: validating criteria for inclusion in the bipolar affective group. Am J Psychiatry 1977; 134:1227-1233.
13. Akiskal HS, Khani MK, Scott-Strauss A. Cyclothymic temperamental disorders. Psychiatr Clin N Am 1979; 2:527-554.
14. Feighner JP, Robins E, Guze SB, Woodruff RA Jr, Winokur G, Munoz R. Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1972; 26:57-63.
15. Kendell RE. The classification of depressions: a review of contemporary confusion. Br J Psychiatry 1976; 129:15-28.
16. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press, 1980.
17. Levitt AJ, Joffe RT, Ennis J, MacDonald C, Kutcher SP. The prevalence of cyclothymia in borderline personality disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51:335-339.
18. Lish JD, Dime-Meenan S, Whybrow PC, Price RA, Hirschfeld RM. The National Depressive and Manic-Depressive Association (DMDA) survey of bipolar members. J Affect Disord 1994; 31:281-294.
19. Ghaemi SN, Boiman EE, Goodwin FK. Diagnosing bipolar disorder and the effect of antidepressants: a naturalistic study. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(10):804-808.
20. Aretaeus of Cappadoccia. The Extant Works of Aretaeus the Cappadocian. London: Sydenham Society, 1856.
21. Falret JP. Mémoire sur la folie circulaire. Bull Acad Natl Méd 1854; 19:382-415.
22. Baillarger J. Notes sur un genre de folie dont les accès sont caractérisés par deux périodes régulières, l'une de dépression, l'autre d'excitation. Bull Acad Natl Méd 1854; 19:340.
23. Pichot P. [Circular insanity 150 years on]. Bull Acad Natl Med 2004; 188:275-284.
24. Akiskal HS. [From circular insanity (in double form) to the bipolar spectrum: the chronic tendency for depressive recurrence]. Bull Acad Natl Med 2004; 188:285-296.
25. Sedler MJ. Falret's discovery: the origin of the concept of bipolar affective illness (Trans. by Sedler MJ and Dessain EC). Am J Psychiatry 1983; 140:1127-1133.
26. Kraepelin E. Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia. Edinburgh: E&S Livingstone, 1921.
27. Kretschmer E: Physique and Character. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. Ltd., 1936.
28. Kelsoe JR. Arguments for the genetic basis of the bipolar spectrum. Affect Disord 2003; 73:183-197.
29. Erfurth A, Gerlach AL, Michael N, Boenigk I, Hellweg I, Signoretta S, Akiskal K, Akiskal HS. Distribution and gender effects of the subscales of a German version of the temperament autoquestionnaire brief TEMPS-M in a university student population. J Affect Disord 2005; 85:53-69.
30. Karam EG, Mneimenh Z, Solamoun M, Akiskal K, Akiskal HS. Psychometric properties of the Lebanese-Arabic TEMPS-A: a national epidemiologic study. J Affect Disord. In press.
31. Schneider K. Psychopathic Personalities. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1958. 32. Akiskal HS. Delineating irritable and hyperthymic variants of the cyclothymic temperament. J Personal Disord 1992; 6:326-342.
32. Akiskal HS. Temperament and Mood Disorders. Harvard Mental Health Letter 2000; 16, Article #175.
33. Akiskal HS, Akiskal K. Cyclothymic, hyperthymic and depressive temperaments as subaffective variants of mood disorders. In: Tasman A, Riba MB, eds. Annual Review. Vol. 11. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1992:43-62.
34. Akiskal HS. The temperamental foundations of mood disorders. In: Mundt CH, ed. Interpersonal Factors in the Origin and Course of Affective Disorders. London: Gaskell, 1996:3-30.
35. Akiskal HS, Downs J, Jordan P, Watson S, Daugherty D, Pruitt DB. Affective disorders in the referred children and younger siblings of manic-depressives: mode of onset and prospective course. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42:996-1003.
36. Perugi G, Akiskal HS, Micheli C, Musetti L, Paiano A, Quilici C, Rossi L, Cassano GB. Clinical subtypes of bipolar mixed states: validating a broader European definition in 143 cases. J Affect Disord 1997; 43:169-180.
37. Akiskal HS, Hantouche E, Bourgeois M, Azorin JM, Sechter D, Allilaire JF, Lancrenon S, Fraud JP, Chatenet-Duchene L. Gender, temperament and the clinical picture in dysphoric mixed mania: findings from a French national study (EPIMAN). J Affect Disord 1998; 50:175-186.
38. Dunner DL, Gershon ES, Goodwin FK. Heritable factors in the severity of affective illness. Biol Psychiatry 1976; 11:31-42.
39. Akiskal HS, Hantouche EG, Lancrenon S. Bipolar II with and without cyclothymic temperament: "dark" and "sunny" expressions of soft bipolarity. J Affect Disord 2003; 73:49-57.
40. Akiskal HS, Rosenthal RH, Rosenthal TL, Kashgarian M, Khani MK, Puzantian VR. Differentiation of primary affective illness from situational, symptomatic, and secondary depressions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979; 36:635-643.
41. Wicki W, Angst J. The Zurich Study. X. Hypomania in a 28- to 30-year-old cohort. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1991; 240:339-348.
42. Benazzi F, Akiskal HS. Refining the evaluation of bipolar II: beyond the strict SCID-CV guidelines for hypomania. J Affect Disord 2003; 73:33-38.
43. Angst J, Gamma A. A new bipolar spectrum concept: a brief review. Bipolar Disord 2002; 4(suppl 1):11-14.
44. Judd LL, Akiskal HS, Schettler PJ, Coryell W, Endicott J, Maser JD, Solomon DA, Leon AC, Keller MB. A prospective investigation of the natural history of the long-term weekly symptomatic status of bipolar II disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60: 261-269.
45. Akiskal HS, Maser JD, Zeller P, Endicott J, Coryell W, Keller M, Warshaw M, Clayton P, Goodwin FK. Switching from "unipolar" to bipolar II: an 11-year prospective study of clinical and temperamental predictors in 559 patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52: 114-123.
46. Savino M, Perugi G, Simonini E, Soriani A, Cassano GB, Akiskal HS. Affective comorbidity in panic disorder: is there a bipolar connection? J Affect Disord 1993; 28: 155-163
47. Perugi G, Akiskal HS, Ramacciotti S, Nassini S, Toni C, Milanfranchi A, Musetti L. Depressive comorbiduty of panic, social phobic and obsessive-compulsive disorders: is there a bipolar II connection? Psychiatr Res 1999; 33:53-61.
48. Young LT, Cooke RG, Robb JAC, Levitt AJ, Joffe RT. Anxious and non-anxious bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 1993; 29:49-52.
49. MacKinnon DF, Xu J, McMahon FJ, Simpson SG, Stine OC, McInnis MG, DePaulo JR. Bipolar disorder and panic disorder in families: an analysis of chromosome 18 data. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:829-831.
50. Rosenthal TL, Akiskal HS, Scott-Strauss A, Rosenthal RH, David M. Familial and developmental factors in characterological depressions. J Affect Disord 1981; 3:183-192.
51. Akiskal HS. Validating antidepressant-associated hypomania (bipolar III): a systematic comparison with spontaneous hypomania (bipolar II). J Affect Disord 2003; 73:65-74.
52. Camacho A, Akiskal HS, Proposal for a bipolar-stimulant spectrum: temperament, diagnostic validation and therapeutic outcomes with mood stabilizers. J Affect Disord 2005; 85:217-230.
53. Cassano GB, Akiskal HS, Savino M, Musetti L, Perugi G. Proposed subtypes of bipolar II and related disorders: with hypomanic episodes (or cyclothymia) and with hyperthy-mic temperament. J Affect Disord 1992; 26:127-140.
54. Deltito J, Martin L, Riefkohl J, Austria B, Kissilenko A, Corless C, Morse P. Do patients with borderline personality disorder belong to the bipolar spectrum? J Affect Disord 2001; 67:221-228.
55. Akiskal HS, Walker PW, Puzantian VR, King D, Rosenthal TL, Dranon M. Bipolar outcome in the course of depressive illness: phenomenologic, familial, and pharmacolo-gic predictors. J Affect Disord 1983; 5:115-128.
56. Kupfer DJ, Pickar D, Himmelhoch JM, Detre TP. Are there two types of unipolar depression? Arch Gen Psychiatry 1975; 32:866-871.
57. Akiskal HS. A proposed clinical approach to chronic and "resistant" depressions: evaluation and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1985; 46(Sec. 2):32-36.
58. Hantouche EG, Akiskal HS, Lancrenon S, Chatenêt-Duchêne L. Mood stabilizer augmentation in apparently "unipolar" MDD: predictors of response in the naturalistic French national EPIDEP study. J Affect Disord 2005; 84:243-249.
59. Akiskal HS, Benazzi F. Family history validation of the bipolar nature of depressive mixed states. J Affect Disord 2003; 73:113-122.
60. Klerman GL. The spectrum of mania. Compr Psychiatry 1981; 22:11-20.
61. Endicott NA. Psychophysiological correlates of 'bipolarity'. J Affect Disord 1989; 17: 47-56.
62. Ghaemi SN, Ko JY, Goodwin FK. "Cade's disease" beyond: misdiagnosis antidepressant use a proposed definition for bipolar spectrum disorder. Can J Psychiatry 2002; 47: 125-134.
63. McElroy SL, Kotwal R, Keck PE Jr, Akiskal HS. Comorbidity of bipolar and eating disorders: distinct or related disorders with shared dysregulations? J Affect Disord. In press.
64. McElroy SL, Pope HG Jr, Keck PE Jr, Hudson JI, Phillips KA, Strakowski SM. Are impulse-control disorders related to bipolar disorder? Compr Psychiatry 1996; 37: 229-240.
65. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV, Spencer T, Wilens TE, Wozniak J. Pediatric mania: a developmental subtype of bipolar disorder? Biol Psychiatry 2000; 48:458-466.
66. Dilsaver SC, Henderson-Fuller S, Akiskal HS. Occult mood disorders in 104 consecutively presenting children referred for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a community mental health clinic. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64:1170-1176.
67. Duffy A, Grof P. Psychiatric diagnoses in the context of genetic studies of bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2001; 3:270-275.
68. Baldessarini R. A plea for integrity of the bipolar disorder concept. Bipolar Disord 2000; 2:3-7.
69. Angst J, Gamma A, Benazzi F, Ajdacic V, Eich D, Rossler W. Toward a re-definition of subthreshold bipolarity: epidemiology proposed criteria for bipolar-II minor bipolar disorders hypomania. J Affect Disord 2003; 73:133-146.
70. Paris J. Borderline or bipolar? Distinguishing borderline personality disorder from bipolar spectrum disorders. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2004; 12:140-145.
71. Akiskal HS. Demystifying borderline personality: critique of the concept and unorthodox reflections on its natural kinship with the bipolar spectrum. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004; 110:401-407.
72. Akiskal HS, Yerevanian BI, Davis GC, King D, Lemmi H. The nosologic status of borderline personality: clinical and polysomnographic study. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142:192-198.
73. Regier DA, Boyd JH, Burke JD Jr, Rae DS, Myers JK, Kramer M, Robins LN, George LK, Karno M, Locke BZ. One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States. Based on five epidemiologic catchment area sites. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45:977-986.
74. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Eshleman S, Wittchen HU, Kendler KS. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51:8-19.
75. Weissman MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ, Faravelli C, Greenwald S, Hwu HG, Joyce PR, Karam EG, Lee CK, Lellouch J, Lepine JP, Newman SC, Rubio-Stipec M, Wells JE, Wickramaratne PJ, Wittchen H, Yeh EK. Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. J Am Med Assoc 1996; 276:293-299.
76. Lewinsohn PM, Klein DN, Seeley JR. Bipolar disorders in a community sample of older adolescents: prevalence, phenomenology, comorbidity, and course. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995; 34:454-563.
77. Szadoczky E, Papp Z, Vitrai J, Rihmer Z, Furedi J. The prevalence of major depressive and bipolar disorders in Hungary. Results from a national epidemiologic survey. J Affect Disord 1998; 50:153-162.
78. Angst J. The emerging epidemiology of hypomania and bipolar II disorder. J Affect Disord 1998; 50:143-151.
79. Judd LL, Akiskal HS. The prevalence and disability of bipolar spectrum disorders in the U.S. population: reanalysis of the ECA database taking into account subthreshold cases. J Affect Disord 2002; 73:123-131.
80. Hirschfeld RM, Calabrese JR, Weissman MM, Reed M, Davies MA, Frye MA, Keck PE Jr, Lewis L, McElroy SL, McNulty JP, Wagner KD. Screening for bipolar disorder in the community. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64:53-59.
81. Hantouche EG, Akiskal HS, Lancrenon S, Allilaire JF, Sechter D, Azorin JM, Bourgeois M, Fraud JP, Châtenet-Duchêne L. Systematic clinical methodology for validating bipolar-II disorder: Data in mid-stream from a French national multisite study (EPIDEP). J Affect Disord 1998; 50:163-173.
82. Akiskal HS, Hantouche EG, Allilaire JF, Akiskal KK. Validation of the new bipolar spectrum: overview of the phenomenology and the relative prevalence of clinical subtypes in the French National EPIDEP Study. J Affect Disord In press.
83. Placidi GF, Signoretta S, Liguori A, Gervasi R, Maremmani I, Akiskal HS. The semi-structured affective temperament interview (TEMPS-I): reliability and psychometric properties in 1010 14-26 year students. J Affect Disord 1998; 47:1-10.
84. Gershon ES, Hamovit J, Guroff JJ, Dibble E, Leckman JF, Sceery W, Targum SD, Nurnberger JI Jr, Goldin LF, Bunney WE Jr. A family study of schizoaffective, bipolar I, bipolar II, unipolar and control probands. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39:1157-1167.
85. Mendlewicz J, Rainier JD. Adoption study supporting genetic transmission in manic-depressive illness. Nature 1977; 268:327-329.
86. Bertelsen A, Haovald B, Hauge M. A Danish twin study of manic-depressive disorders. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 130:330-351.
87. Gershon ES. Bipolar illness and schizophrenia as oligogenic disease: implications for the future. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47:240-244.
88. Niculescu AB, Segal DS, Kuczenski R, Barrett T, Hauger RL, Kelsoe JR. Identifying a series of candidate genes for mania and psychosis: a convergent functional genomics approach. Physiol Genomics 2000; 4:83-91.
89. Akiskal HS, Azorin JM, Hantouche EG. Proposed multidimensional structure of mania: beyond the euphoric-dysphoric dichotomy. J Affect Disord 2003; 73:7-18.
90. Kelsoe JR, Spence MA, Loetscher E, Foguet M, Sadovnick AD, Remick RA, Flodman P, Khristich J, Mroczkowski-Parker Z, Brown JL, Masser D, Ungerleider S, Rapaport MH, Wishart WL, Luebbert H. A genome survey indicates a possible susceptibility locus for bipolar disorder on chromosome 22. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98:585-590.
91. Barrett TB, Hauger RL, Kennedy JL, Sadovnick AD, Remick RA, Keck PE, McElroy SL, Alexander M, Shaw SH, Kelsoe JR. Evidence that a single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter of the G protein receptor kinase 3 gene is associated with bipolar disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2003; 8:546-557.
92. Geller B, Zimerman B, Williams M, Bolhofner K, Craney JL. Bipolar disorder at prospective follow-up of adults who had prepubertal major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158:125-127.
93. Robins E, Guze SB. Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1970; 126:983-986.
94. Akiskal HS. Validating 'hard' and 'soft' phenotypes within the bipolar spectrum: continuity of discontinuity?. J Affect Disord 2003; 73:1-5.
95. Musetti L, Perugi G, Soriani A, Rossi VM, Cassano GB, Akiskal HS. Depression before and after age 65: a re-examination. Br J Psychiatry 1989; 155:330-336.
96. Akiskal HS. The dark side of bipolarity: detecting bipolar depression in its pleomorphic expressions. J Affect Disord. In press.
97. Himmelhoch JM. Social anxiety, hypomania and the bipolar spectrum: data, theory and clinical issues. J Affect Disord 1998; 50:203-213.
98. Akiskal HS, Benazzi F, Perugi G, Rihmer Z. The nosologic status of agitated "unipolar" depression: re-conceptualization as a depressive mixed state and implications for the antidepressant suicide controversy. J Affect Disord 2005; 85:245-258.
99. Rihmer Z. Decreasing national suicide rates-fact or fiction? World J Biol Psychiatry 2004; 5:55-56.
100. Ghaemi S. Long-term naturalistic treatment of depressive symptoms in bipolar illness with divalproex vs. lithium in the setting of minimal antidepressant use. J Affect Disord 2001; 65:281-287.
101. Akiskal HS. The Jean Delay Prize Paper: from dysthymia to the bipolar spectrum: bridging practice and research. Published address at the opening ceremony of the XII World Congress of Psychiatry in Yokahama, Japan, World Psychiatric Association, 2002.
102. Manning JS, Haykal RF, Connor PD, Akiskal HS. On the nature of depressive and anxious states in a family practice setting: the high prevalence of bipolar II and related disorders in a cohort followed longitudinally. Compr Psychiatry 1997; 38:102-108.
103. Goldberg J, Harrow M, eds. Bipolar Disorder: Outcome. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1999.
104. Akiskal HS. "bipolar disorder: outcome." New Eng J Med 1999; 341:1861-1862
105. Akiskal HS, Akiskal K. Re-assessing the prevalence of bipolar disorders: clinical significance and artistic creativity. Psychiatr Psychobiol 1988; 3:29s-36s.
106. Richards R, Kinney DK, Lunde I, Benet M, Merzel AP. Creativity in manic-depressives, cyclothymes, their normal relatives, and control subjects. J Abnorm Psychol 1988; 97:281-288.
107. Coryell W, Endicott J, Keller M, Andreasen N, Grove W, Hirschfeld RM, Scheftner W. Bipolar affective disorder and high achievement: a familial association. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146:983-988.
108. Verdoux H, Bourgeois M. Social class in unipolar and bipolar probands and relatives. J Affect Disord 1995; 33:181-187.
109. Akiskal HS. Dysthymia, cyclothymia and related chronic subthreshold mood disorders. In: Gelder M, Lopez-Ibor J, Andreasen N, eds. New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry. London: Oxford University Press, 2000:736-749.
110. Akiskal HS. The bipolar spectrum-the shaping of a new paradigm. Curr Psychiatry Rev 2002; 4:1-3.