Sudden infant death syndrome from epidemiology to pathophysiology

Current Pediatric Reviews

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 177-189

  Franco, Patricia ^a   Kugener, Bétrice ^a   Dijoud, Frédérique ^a   Scaillet, Sonia ^b   Groswasser, Jose ^b   Kato, Ineko ^c   Montemitro, Enza ^d   Lin, Jian Sheng ^a   Kahn, André ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ LYON 1   (France)

^b HOP UNIV DES ENFANTS REINE FABIOLA   (Belgium)

^c NAGOYA CITY UNIV MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Japan)

^d SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

Author keywords

Apparent life threatening event; Infant; Risk factors; Sleep; Sudden infant death syndrome

Indexed keywords

CANNABIS; COCAINE; DIAMORPHINE; METHADONE; PHENOTHIAZINE; SEDATIVE AGENT;

AIR POLLUTION; ALCOHOLISM; ASPHYXIA; BED SHARING; BREAST FEEDING; CHILD CARE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLIMATE CHANGE; DRUG DEPENDENCE; ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; HYPERTHERMIA; INCIDENCE; INFANT; INFECTION; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREMATURITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACE DIFFERENCE; RECURRENCE RISK; RESPIRATION CONTROL; REVIEW; RHINOPHARYNGITIS; RISK FACTOR; SEASONAL VARIATION; SLEEP; SLEEP AROUSAL DISORDER; SOCIAL CLASS; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME;

EID: 34548318692     PISSN: 15733963     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157339607781369528     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Willinger M, James LS, Catz C. Defining the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): deliberations of an expert panel convened by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Pediatr Pathol 1991; 11: 677.
2. Krous HF, Beckwith JE Byard RW, et al. Sudden infant death syndrome and unclassified sudden infant deaths: A definitional and diagnostic approach. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 234-8.
3. Kahn A. Recommended clinical evaluation of infants with an apparent life-threatening event. Consensus document of the European Society for the Study and Prevention of Infant Death, 2003. Eur J Pediatr 2004; 163: 108-15.
4. Valdes-Dapena MA. Sudden infant death syndrome: a review of the medical literature 1974-79. Pediatrics 1980; 66: 597-614.
5. McNamara F, Sullivan CE. Obstructive sleep apnea in infants: relation to family history of sudden infant death syndrome, apparent life-threatening events, and obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr 2000; 136:318-23.
6. Kahn A, Blum D, Hennart P, et al. A critical comparison of the history of sudden-death infants and infants hospitalised for nearmiss for SIDS. Eur J Pediatr 1984; 143: 103-7.
7. Mitchell EA, Tliompson JMD. Parental reported apnoea, admissions to hospital and sudden infant death syndrome. Acta, Paediatr 2001; 90: 417-22.
8. Valdes-Dapena M. The Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: Pathologic Findings. In: Hunt CE (Ed). Clinics in Perinatology: Apnea and SIDS. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1992; pp. 701-17.
9. Rognum TO. Definition and pathologic features. In: Byard RW, Krous HF (eds). Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Problems, Progress and possibilities. Arnold, London, 2001; pp: 4-30.
10. Jones KL, Krous HF, Nadeau J, Blackbourne B, Zielke HR, Gozal D. Vascular endothelial growth factor in the cerebrospinal fluid of infants who died of sudden infant death syndrome: evidence for antecedent hypoxia. Pediatrics 2003; 111: 358-63.
11. Dancea A, Coté A, Rohlicek C, Bernard C, Ologay LL. Cardiac pathology in sudden unexpected infant death. J Pediatr 2002; 141: 336-42.
12. Dettmeyer R, Baasner A, Schlamann M, et al. Role of virus-induced myocardial affections in SIDS: A Prospective Postmortem Study. Pediatr Res 2004; 55: 947-952.
13. Hoffman HJ, Hillman LS. Epidemiology of the sudden infant death syndrome: maternal, neonatal and postnatal risk factors. In: Hunt CE (Eds). Clinics in Perinatology: Apnea and SIDS. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co, 1992; pp. 717-738.
14. Hunt C. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. In: Beckerman RC, Brouillette RT, Hunt CE (Eds). Respiratory control disorders in infants and children. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, 1992; pp. 190-211.
15. Glotzbach SF, Ariagno RL, Harper RM. Sleep and the sudden infant death syndrome. In: Ferber R, Kryger M (Eds). Principles and practice of sleep medecine in the child. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia, 1995; pp. 231-244.
16. AAP Task Force on Infant Sleeping Position and SIDS. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 1120-1126.
17. Dwyer T, Ponsonby AL. The decline of SIDS: A success story for epidemiology. Epidemiology 1996; 7: 323-5.
18. Hauck FR. Changing epidemiology. In: Byard RW, Krous HF (eds). Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Problems, Progress and possibilities. Arnold, London, 2001; pp: 31-57.
19. Froggatt P. Epidemiologic aspects of the Northern Ireland study. In: Bergman AS, Beckwith JB, Ray CG (Eds). Proceedings of the second international conference on causes of sudden infant death. Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1970; 32-46.
20. Little RE, Peterson DR. Sudden infant death syndrome epidemiology: A review and update. Epidemiol Rev 1990; 12: 241-245.
21. Haglund B, Cnattingius S. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for sudden death syndrome: a population-based study. Am J Public Health 1990; 80: 29-32.
22. Hill SAR, Hjelmeland B, Johannessen NM, Irgens LM, Skjaerven R. Changes in parental risk behavior after an information campaign against sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) in Norway. Acta Paediatr 2004; 93: 205-254.
23. Pickett KE, Luo Y, Lauderdale DS. Widening social inequalities in risk for sudden infant death syndrome. Am J Public Health 2005; 95: 1976-81.
24. Kahn A, Bauche P, Groswasser J, Dramaix K Scaillet S, Working Group, Groupe Belge de Pediatres Francophones. Maternal education and risk factors for sudden death in infants. Eur J Pediatr. 2001; 160: 505-8.
25. Grether J, Schulman J. Sudden infant death syndrome among Asians in California. J Pediatr 1990; 522: 520-4.
26. Mitchell EA, Stewart AW, Cowan SF. Sudden infant death syndrome and weather temperature. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1992; 6: 19-28.
27. Wigfield R, Gilbert R, Fleming PJ. SIDS: risk reduction measures. Hum Dev 1994; 38: 161-4.
28. Dales R, Burnett RT, Smith-Doiron Marc, Stieb DM, Brook JR. Air pollution and sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 2004; 113:628-631.
29. Klonoff-Cohen H, Lam PK, Lewis A. Outdoor carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child 2005; 90: 750-3.
30. Carpenter RG, Irgens LM, Blair PS, et al. Sudden unexplained infant death in 20 regions in Europe: case control study. Lancet 2004; 363: 185-191.
31. Vernacchio L, Corwin MJ, Lesko SM, et al. Sleep position of low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2003; 111: 633-40.
32. Blair PS, Platt MW, Smith IJ, Fleming PJ. Sudden infant death syndrome and sleeping position in pre-term and low birth weight infants: An opportunity for targeted intervention. Arch Dis Child. 2006; 91: 101-6.
33. Fares I, McCulloch KM, Raju TNK. Intrauterine cocaine exposure and the risk for sudden infant death syndrome: A meta-analysis. J Perinatol 1997; 17: 179-82.
34. Iyasu S, Randall LL, Welty TY, et al. Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome among northern plains Indians. JAMA 2002; 288: 2717-23.
35. Friend KBI Goodwin MS, Lipsitt LP. Alcohol use and sudden infant death syndrome. Dev Rev 2004; 24: 235-251.
36. Mitchell EA, Ford RP, Stewart AW, et al. Smoking and the sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 1993a; 91: 893-896.
37. Klonoff-Colien HS, Edelstein SL, Lefkowitz ES, et al. The effect of passive smoking and tobacco exposure through breast milk on sudden infant death syndrome. JAMA 1995; 273: 795-8.
38. Chong DSY, Yip PSF, Karlberg J. Maternal smoking: an increasing unique risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome in Sweden. Acta Paediatr 2004; 93: 471-8.
39. Anderson ME, Johnson DC, Batal HA. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome and prenatal maternal smoking: rising attributed risk in the Back to Sleep era. BMC Med 2005; 11: 3: 4.
40. Hafström O, Milerad J, Sandberg KL, Sundell HW. Cardiorespiratory effects of nicotine exposure during development. Resp Phys Neurobiol 2005; 149: 325-341.
41. Hanrahan JP, Tagerl B, Segal MR, et al. The effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on early infant lung function. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 1129-35.
42. Slotkin TA. Cholinergic systems in brain development and disruption by neurotoxicants: nicotine, environmental tobacco smoke, organophosphatcs. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2004; 198: 132-151.
43. Navarro HA, Seidler FJ, Schwartz RD, Baker FF, Dobbins SS, Slotkin TA. Prenatal exposure to nicotine impairs nervous system development at a dose which does not affect viability or growth. Brain Res Bull 1989; 23: 187-192.
44. Hafström O, Milerad J, Sundell HW. Altered breathing pattern after prenatal nicotine exposure in the young lamb. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 92-97.
45. Holgert H, Hokfelt T, Hertzberg T, Lagercrantz H. Functional and developmental studies of the peripheral arterial chemoreceptors in rat effects of nicotine and possible relation to sudden infant death syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 7575-79.
46. Cohen G, Han ZY, Grailhe R, et al. Beta 2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit modulates protective responses to stress: a receptor basis for sleep-disordered breathing after nicotine exposure. Proc Nad Acad Sci USA 2002; 99: 13272-7.
47. Kinney HC, O'Donnell TJ, Kriger P, White WF. Early developmental changes in [3H]nicotine binding in the human brainstem. Neuroscience 1993; 55, 1127-1138.
48. Fewell JE, Smith FG. Perinatal nicotine exposure impairs ability of newborn rats to autoresuscitate from apnea during hypoxia. J APPl Physiol 1998; 85: 2066-74.
49. Slotkin TA, Epps TA, Stenger ML, Sawyer KJ, Seidler FJ. Cholinergic receptors in heart and brainstem of rats exposed to nicotine during development: implications for hypoxia tolerance and perinatal mortality. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1999; 113: 1-12.
50. Neff RA, Simmens SJ, Evans C, Mendelowitz D. Prenatal nicotine exposure alters central cardiorespiratory responses to hypoxia in rats: implications for sudden infant death syndrome. J Neurosci 2004; 4: 9261-8.
51. Evans C, Wang J, Neff R, Mendelowitz D. Hypoxia recruits a respiratory-related excitatory pathway to brainstein premotor cardiac vagal neurons in animals exposed to prenatal nicotine. Neuroscience 2005; 133: 1073-9.
52. Beal SM, Blundell HK. Recurrence of incidence of sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child 1988; 63: 924-30.
53. Oyen H, Markstead T, Skjaerven R, et al. Combined effects of sleeping position and the perinatal risk factors in sudden infant death syndrome: the Nordic epidemiological SIDS study. Pediatrics 1997; 100: 613-621.
54. Firstman R, Talan J. SIDS and infanticide. In: Byard RW, Krous HF (eds). Sudden infant death syndrome. London: Arnold, 2001: pp. 291-300.
55. Meadow R. Unnatural sudden infant death. Arch Dis Child 1999; 80:7-14.
56. Carpenter RG, Waite A, Daman-Willems C, et al. Repeat sudden unexpected and unexplained infant deaths: natural or unnatural? Lancet 2005; 365: 29-35.
57. Engelberts AC, de Jong GA. Choice of sleeping position for infants: possible association with cot death. Arch Dis Child 1990; 65: 462-7.
58. Fleming PJ, Gilbert R, Aza Y, et al. Interaction between bedding and sleeping position in the sudden infant death syndrome: a population based case-control study. Br Med J 1990; 301: 85-9.
59. Beal SM, Finch CF. An overview of retrospective case-control studies investigating the relationship between prone sleeping position and SIDS. J Paediatr Child Health 1991; 27: 334-9.
60. Thach BT, Mitchell EA, Thompson JMD on behalf of the New Zealand Cot Death study group. Changing infant's death position increases risk of sudden infant death syndrome. J Investig Med 1998; 46: 260A.
61. Horne RS, Franco P, Adamson TM, Groswasser, Kahn A. Effects of body position on sleep and arousal characteristics in infants. Early Hum Dev 2002b; 69: 25-33.
62. Paluszynska D, Harris Y, Thach B. Influence of sleep position experience on ability of prone-sleeping infants from asphyxiating microenvironements by changing head position. Pediatr 2004; 114: 1634-9.
63. L'Hoir MP, Engelberts AC, van Well GT, et al. Risk and preventive factors for cot death in Nederlands, a low-inicidence country. Eur J Pediatr 1998; 157: 681-8.
64. Kemp JS, Livne M, White DK, Ariken CL. Softness and potential to cause rebreathing: differences in bedding used by infants at high and low risk for sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 234-9.
65. Sciragg RK, Mitchell EA. Side sleeping position and bed-sharing in the sudden infant death syndrome. Ann Med 1998; 30: 345-9.
66. Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T, Gibbons LE, Cochrane JA, Jones ME, McCall MJ. Thermal environment and sudden infant death syndrome : case-control study. Br Med J 1992; 304: 277-82.
67. Stanton AN. Overheating. Lancet 1984; 24: 1199-1201.
68. Scheers NJ, Mitchell Dayton C, Kemp JS. Sudden Infant Death with external airways covered: Case-comparison study of 206 deaths in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1998; 152: 540-7.
69. De Jonge GA, Lanting CI, Brand R, Ruys JH, Semmekrot BA, van Wouve JP. Sudden infant death syndrome in child care settings in the Netherlands. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89: 427-430.
70. Moon RY, Sprague BM, Patel KM. Stable prevalence but changing risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome in child care settings in 2001. Pediatrics 2005; 116: 972-7.
71. Mitchell EA, Taylor BJ, Ford RP, et al. Four modifiable and other major risk factors for cot death: the New Zealand Study. J Paediatr Child Health 1992; 28: 3-8.
72. Tappin D, Ecob R, Brooke H. Bedsharing, roomsharing, and sudden infant death syndrome in Scotland: a case-control study. J Pediatr 2005; 147: 32-7.
73. McGarvey C, McDonnell M, Hamilton K, O'regan M, Mattews T. An eight-year study of risk factors for SIDS: Bed- sharing vs. non bed-sharing. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91: 318-23.
74. Nakamura S, Wind M, Danello MA. Review of hazards associated with children placed in adult beds. Arch Pediatr Adlesc Med 1999; 153: 1019-23.
75. Vennemann MM, Findeisen M, Butterfass-Bahloul T, et al. GeSID Group. Infection, health problems, and health care utilisation, and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child 2005; 90: 520-2.
76. Gilbert R. The changing epidemiology of SIDS. Br Med J 1994; 70: 445-9.
77. Heininger U, Kleemann WJ, Cherry JD, SIDS Study Group. A controlled study of the relationship between Bordetella pertusis infections and sudden unexpected deaths among German Infants. Pediatr 2004; 114: 9-15.
78. Gilbert R, Rudd P, Berry PJ, et al. Combined effect of infection and heavy wrapping on the risk of sudden unexpected infant death. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67: 171-177.
79. Kahn A, Hasaerts D, Blum D. Phenothiazine-induced sleep apneas in normal infants. Pediatrics 1985; 75: 844-847.
80. Mitchell EA, Taylor BJ, Ford RPK, et al. Dummies and the sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Dis Child 1993b; 68: 501-504.
81. Hauck FR, Omojokun OO, Siadaty MS. Do pacifiers reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome? A meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2005; 116: 716-23.
82. Franco P, Scaillet S, Wermembol V, Valente F, Groswasser J, Kahn A. The influence of a pacifier on infants' arousals from sleep. J Pediatr 2000; 136: 775 -9.
83. Mitchell EA, Thompson JMD. Co-sleeping increases the risk of SIDS, but sleeping in the parents' bedroom lowers it. In: Rognum TO (ed). Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, New Trends in the Nineties. Scandinavian University Press, Oslo, 1995, pp. 266-9.
84. Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T, Gibbons LE, Cochrane JA, Wang YG. Factors potentiating the risk of sudden infant death syndrome associated with the prone position. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 377-82.
85. Wilson CA, Taylor BJ, Laing RM, Williams SK Mitchell EA. Clothing and bedding, and its relevance to sudden infant death syndrome: further results from the New Zealand Cot Death Study. J Pediatr Child Health 1994; 30: 506-512.
86. Franco P, Seret N, Van Hees JN, Scaillet S, Groswasser J, Kahn A. The Influence of swaddling on sleep and arousal characteristics in healthy infants. Pediatrics 2005; 115: 1307-11.
87. Filiano JJ, Kinney HC. A perspective on neuropathologic findings in victim of the sudden infant death syndrome: The triple-risk model. Biol Neonate 1994; 65: 194-7.
88. Opdal SH, Rognum TO. The Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Gene: Does it exist? Pediatrics 2004; 144: 506-12.
89. Boles RG, Buck EA, Blitzer MG, et al. Retrospective biochemical screening of fatty acid oxidation disorders in postmortem livers of 418 cases of sudden death in the first year of life. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 924-33.
90. Wilcox RL, Nelson CC, Stenzel P, Steiner RD. Postmortem screening for fatty acid oxidation disorders by analysis of Guthrie cards with tandem mass spectrometry in sudden unexpected death in infancy. J Pediatr 2002; 141: 833-6.
91. Forsyth L, Hume R, Howatson A, Busuttil A, Burchell A. Identification of novel polymorphisms in the glucokinase and glucose-6-phosphatase genes in infants who died suddenly and unexpectedly. J Mol Med 2005; 83: 610-8.
92. Larsen TB, Norgaard-Pedersen B, Lundemose JB, Rudiger N, Gaustadnes M, Brandshlund I. Sudden infant death syndrome, childhood thrombosis, and presence of genetic risk factors for thrombosis. Thromb Res 2000; 98: 233-9.
93. Ackerman MJ, Siu. BL, Sturner WQ, et al. Postmortem molecular analysis of SCN5A defects in sudden infant death syndrome. JAMA 2001; 286: 2264-9.
94. Schwartz PJ, Stramba-Badiale M, Segantini P, et al. Prolongation of the QT interval and the sudden infant death syndrome. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 1709-1714.
95. Narita N, Narita M, Takashima S, Nakayama M, Nagai T, Okado N. Serotonin transporter gene variation is a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome in the Japanese population. Pediatrics 2001; 107: 690-2.
96. Weese-Mayer DE, Zhou L, Berry-Kravis EM, Maher BS, Silvestri JK Marazita ML. Association of the serotonin transporter gene with sudden infant death syndrome: a haplotype analysis. Am J Med Genet A 2003; 122: 238-45.
97. Smith GSC, Wood AM, Pell JP, White IR, Crossley JA, Dobbie R. Second-trimester maternal serum levels of alpha-fetoprotein and the subsequent risk of SIDS. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 978-86.
98. Getahun D, Amre D, Rhoads GG, Demissie K. Maternal and obstetric. risk factors for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 2004; 103: 646-52.
99. Stem E, Parmelee AH, Akiyama Y, Schultz MA, Werner WH. Sleep cycle characteristics in infants. Pediatrics 1969; 43: 65-70.
100. Louis J, Cannard C, Bastuji H, Challamel MJ. Sleep ontogenesis revisited: a longitudinal 24-hour home, polygraphic study on 15 normal infants during the first two years of life. Sleep 1997; 20: 323-33.
101. Anders T, Sadeh A, Appareddy V. Normal sleep in neonates and children: In: Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine in the child. Ferber R, Kryger M (eds). Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co 1995; 7-18.
102. McGraw MB. The neuromuscular maturation of the human infants. New York: Hafher (Columbia); l976: 33-6.
103. Lipsitt LP. Crib Death: A biobehavioral phenomenon? Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2003; 12: 164-170.
104. Swift PG, Emery JL. Cilnical observations on responses to nasal occlusion in infancy. Arch Dis Child 1973; 48: 947-951.
105. Mitchell EA, Brunt JM, Everard C. Reduction in mortality from sudden infant death syndrome in New Zealand: 1986-92. Arch Dis Child 1994; 70(4): 291-4.
106. Emery JL. Epidemiology of "sudden, unexpected, or rapid" deaths in children. Br Med J 1959; 7: 925-8.
107. Fleming PJ, Blair PS, Jerry J, Bacon C. Potentially modifiable risk factors of SIDS. In: Fleming P, ed. Sudden unexpected deaths in infancy: The CESDI SUDI studies 1993-1996. The Stationary Office (HMSO) 2000; 20-21.
108. Ford RP, Hassall. IB, Mitchell EA, et al. Life events social support and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1996; 37: 835-840.
109. Schechtman VL, Harper RK Wilson AJ, Southall D. Sleep apnea in infants who succumb to the sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 1991; 87: 841-846.
110. Guilleminault C, Ariagno RL, Forno LS, Baldwin R, Owen M. Obstructive sleep apneas and near miss SIDS: I. Report of an infant with sudden death. Pediatrics 1979; 63: 837-843.
111. Kahn A, Groswasser J, Rebuffat E, et al. Sleep and cardiorespiratory characteristics of infant victims of sudden death: a prospective case-control study. Sleep 1992; 15: 287-92.
112. Kato I, Groswasser J, Franco P, et al. Developmental characteristics of apnea in infants who succumb to sudden infant death syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 1464-9.
113. Shatz A, Hiss J, Arensburg B. Basement membrane thickening of the vocal cords in sudden infant death syndrome. Laryngoscope 1991; 101: 484-6.
114. Takashima S, Armstrong D, Becker LE, Bryan C. Cerebral hypoperfusion in the sudden infant death syndrome? Brainstem gliosis and vasculature. Ann Neurol 1978; 4: 257-62.
115. Waters K, Meehan B, Huang J, Gravel R, Michaud J, Cǒté A. Neuronal apoptosis in sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatr Res 1999; 45: 166-72.
116. Sullivan CE, Grunstein RR, Marrone O. Sleep apnea-pathophysiology: upper airway and control of breathing. In: Guilleminault C, Partinnen M (Eds). Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: clinical research and treatment. New York, Raven Press Ltd, 1990; pp. 49-69.
117. Guilleminault C, Stoohs R. From apnea of infancy to obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in the young child. Chest 1992; 102: 1065-71.
118. Kahn A, Rebuffat E, Sottiaux M, Muller MF, Bochner A, Groswasser J. Prevention of airway obstructions during sleep in infants with breath-holding spells by means of oral belladonna: a prospective double-blind crossover evaluation. Sleep 1991; 14: 432-438.
119. Sutton D, Taylor EM, Lindeman RC. Prolonged apnea in infant monkeys resulting from stimulation of superior laryngeal nerve. Pediatrics 1978; 61: 519-527.
120. Kato I, Franco P, Groswasser J, Kelmanson I, Togari H, Kahn A. Prevalence of obstructive and mixed sleep apneas in 1023 infants. Sleep 2000; 23: 487-492.
121. Tonkin S. Sudden infant death syndrome: hypothesis of causation. Pediatrics 1975; 55: 650-60.
122. Groswasser J, Simon T, Scaillet S, Franco P, Kahn A. Reduced arousals following obstructive apneas in infants sleeping prone. Pediatr Res 200 1; 402-6.
123. Kahn A, Groswasser J, Sottiaux. M, et al. Prenatal exposure to cigarettes in infants with obstructive sleep apneas. Pediatrics 1994; 93: 778-83.
124. Canet E, Gaultier C, D'Allest A, et al. Effects of sleep deprivation on respiratory events during sleep in healthy infants. J Appl Physiol 1989; 66: 1158-63.
125. Franco P, Seret N, Van Hees JN, et al. Decreased arousals in healthy infants following short-term sleep deprivation. Sleep 2004; 114: 192-7.
126. Kahn A, Blum D, Muller F, et al. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome in a Twin: comparison of sibling histories. Pediatrics 1986; 78: 146-150.
127. Schechtman VL, Harper RM, Kluge KA, Wilson AJ, Hoffman HJ, Southall DP. Cardiac and respiratory patterns in normal infants and victims of the sudden infant death syndrome. Sleep 1988; 11: 413-24.
128. Kluge AK, Harper RM, Schechtman VL, Wilson AJ, Hoffman HJ, Southall DP. Spectral analysis assessment of respiratory sinus arrhythmia in normal infants and infants who subsequently died of sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatr Res 1988; 24: 677-82.
129. Franco P, Szliwowski H, Dramaix M, Kahn A. Polysomnographic study of the autonomic nervous system in potential victims of sudden infant death syndrome. Clin Auton Research 1998; 8: 243-9.
130. Harper RM, Bandler R. Finding the failure mechanism in Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Nat Med 1998; 4: 157-8.
131. Franco P, Chabanski S, Szliwowski H, Dramaix M, Kahn A. Influence of maternal smoking on autonomic nervous system in healthy infants. Pediatr Res 2000; 47: 215-19.
132. Franco P, Kahn A, Groswasser J, Sottiaux M, Broadfield E. Decreased cardiac responses to auditory stimulation during prone sleep. Pediatrics 1996; 97: 174-178.
133. Galland BC, Reeves G, Taylor BJ, Bolton PG. Sleep position, autonomic function, and arousal. Arch Dis Child Neonatal Ed 1998; 78: 189-194.
134. Franco P, Seret N, Van Hees JN, Lanquart JL, Groswasser J, Kahn A. Cardiac autonomic changes during sleep in sleep-deprived infants. Sleep 2003; 26: 845-848.
135. Franco P, Szliwowski H, Dramaix M, Kahn A. Influence of ambient temperature on sleep characteristics and autonomic nervous control in healthy infants. Sleep 2000; 23: 401-7.
136. Franco P, Lipshut W, Valente F, Adams S, Groswasser J, Kahn A. Cardiac autonomic characteristics in infants sleeping with the head covered by bedclothes. Pediatr Res 2002; 109: 1112-27.
137. Franco P, Chabanski S, Scaillet S, Groswasser J, Kahn A. Pacifier use modifies infant's cardiac autonomic controls during sleep. Early Hum. Develop 2004; 77: 99-108.
138. Franco P, Scaillet S, Groswasser J. Kahn A. Increased cardiac autonomic responses to auditory challenges in swaddled infants. Sleep 2004; 15: 1527-32.
139. Lown B, Verrier RL. Neural activity and ventricular fibrillation. N Engl J Med 1976; 294: 1165-70.
140. Schwartz PJ, Billman GE, Stone HL. Autonomic mechanism in ventricular fibrillation induced by myocardial ischemia during exercise in dogs with a healed myocardial infarction. An experimental preparation for sudden cardiac death. Circulation 1984; 69: 780-90.
141. Yuan SZ, Runold M, Lagercrantz H. Adrenalectomy reduces the ability of newborn rats to gasp and survive anoxia. Acta physiol Scand 1997; 159: 285-292.
142. Shaul PW, Cha CM, Oh W. Neonatal sympathoadrenal responses to acute hypoxia: impairment after experimental intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr Res 1989; 25: 466-472.
143. Porges SW. Vagal tone: a physiologic marker of stress vulnerability. Pediatrics 1992; 90: 498-504.
144. Schechtman V, Harper RM, Wilson JW, Southall DP. Sleep state organization in normal infants and victims of the sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 865-870.
145. Kato L Franco P, Groswasser J, Scaillet S, Kelmanson I, Togari H, Kahn A. Incomplete arousal processes in infants who were victims of sudden death. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168: 1298-1303.
146. Newman NM, Trinder JA, Phillips KA, Jordan K, Cruickshank J. Arousal deficit: mechanisms of the sudden infant death syndrome ? Aus Paediatr J 1989; 25: 196-201.
147. Davidson Ward SL, Bautista DB, Keens TG. Hypoxic arousal responses in normal infants. Pediatrics 1992; 89: 860-4.
148. Davidson Ward SL, Bautista DB, Woo MS. et al. Responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia in infants of substance-abusing mothers. J Pediatr 1992; 121: 704-9.
149. Lewis KW, Bosque EM. Deficient hypoxia awakening response in infants of smoking mothers: Possible relationship to sudden infant death syndrome. J Pediatr 1995; 127: 691-9.
150. Franco P, Groswasser J, Hassid S, Lanquart JP, Scaillet S, Kahn A. Prenatal exposure to cigarette smoking is associated with a decrease in arousal in infants. J Pediatr 1999; 135: 34-48.
151. Horne RSC, Ferens D, Watts A-M, et al. Maternal tobacco smoking impairs arousal in healthy term infants sleeping supine. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2002; 87: 100-5
152. Chang AB, Wilson SJ, Masters IB, et al. Altered arousal response in infants exposed to cigarette smoke. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88: 30-3.
153. Home RSC, Sly DJ, Crahage SM, Chau B, Adamson TM. Effects of prematurity on arousal from sleep in the newborn infant. Pediatr Res 2000; 47: 468-474.
154. Horne RS, Osborne A, Vitkovic J, et al. Arousal from sleep in infants is impaired following an infection. Early Hum Dev 2002; 66: 89-100.
155. Franco P, Pardon A, Hassid S, Lurquin P, Groswasser J, Kahn A. Auditory arousal thresholds are higher when infants sleep in the prone position. J Pediatr 1998a; 132: 240-3.
156. Horne RSC, Ferens D, Watts AM, et al. The prone sleep impairs arousability in healthy term infants. J Pediatr 2001; 138: 811-6.
157. Franco P, Lipshutz W, Valente F, et al. Decreased arousals in infants sleeping with the face covered by bedclothes. Pediatrics 2002; 109: 112-7.
158. Franco P, Scaillet S, Valente F, Chabanski S, Groswasser J, Kahn A. Ambient temperature is associated with changes in infants' arousability form sleep. Sleep 2001; 24: 325-9.
159. Horne RS, Parslow PM, Ferens D, Watts AM, Adamson TM. Comparison of evoked amusability in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child 2004; 89(1): 22-5.
160. Filiano JJ, Kinney HC. Arcuate nucleus hypoplasia in the sudden infant death syndrome. J Neuropath Exp Neurol 1992; 51: 394-403.
161. Sparks DL, Hunsaker JC. Sudden infant death syndrome: altered aminergic-cholinergic synaptic markers in hypothalamus. J Child Neural 1991; 6: 335-9.
162. Carpentier V, Vaudry H, Mallet E, Laquerriere A, Leroux P. Increased density of somatostatin bindings sites in respiratory nuclei of the brainstem in sudden infant death syndrome. Neuroscience 1998; 86: 159-166.
163. Obonai T, Yasuhara M, Nakamura T, Takashima S. Catecholamine neurons alteration in the brainstem of sudden infant death syndrome victims. Pediatrics 1998; 101: 285-8.
164. Kinney HC, Filiano JJ, White WF. Medullary serotonergic network deficiency in the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: Review of a 15-year study of a single dataset. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60: 228-47.
165. Johnson PL, Moratalla. R, Lightman SL, Lowry CA. Are tuberomammillary histaminergic neurons involved in CO2-mediated arousal? Exp Neurol 2005; 193: 228-33.
166. Kinney HC, McHugh T, Miller K, Belliveau RA, Assmann SF. Subtle developmental abnormalities in the inferior olive: an indicator of prenatal brainstem injury in the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002; 61: 427-41.
167. Paterson DS, Trachtenberg FL, Thompson EG, et al. Multiple serotonergic brainstem abnormalities in sudden infant death syndrome. JAMA 2006; 296: 2124-32.
168. Kimney HC, Randall LL, Sleeper LA, et al. Serotonergic brainstem abnormalities in Northern Plains Indians with the sudden infant death syndrome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2003; 62: 1178-91.
169. Bajanowski T, Vege A, Byard R, et al. SIDS- Standardised investigation and classification. Recommendations. Forensic Sci Int 2007; 165: 129-43.
170. Dent A, Condon L, Blair P, Fleming P. A study of bereavement care after sudden and unexpected death. Arch Dis Child 1996; 74: 522-526.