Changing patterns of chikunya virus: Re-emergence of a zoonotic arbovirus

Journal of General Virology

Volumn 88, Issue 9, 2007, Pages 2363-2377

  Powers, Ann M ^a   Logue, Christopher H ^a  

^a NATIONAL CENTER FOR EMERGING AND ZOONOTIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALPHA INTERFERON; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; AZAURIDINE; CARRAGEENAN; CHIKUNGUNYA ALPHAVIRUS VACCINE; CHLOROQUINE; DEXTRAN SULFATE; FUCOIDIN; GLYCYRRHIZIC ACID; IBUPROFEN; INDOMETACIN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PARACETAMOL; RIBAVIRIN; STEROID; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VIRUS ANTIBODY; VIRUS VACCINE;

ANIMAL DISEASE; ANTIBODY PRODUCTION; ARBOVIRUS; ARTHRALGIA; BED REST; BLOOD TOXICITY; CAUSE OF DEATH; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CHIKUNGUNYA ALPHAVIRUS; CLADISTICS; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; DRUG FEVER; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG RESEARCH; DRUG SAFETY; ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; EPIDEMIC; GENOTYPE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION RISK; INFECTIOUS ARTHRITIS; JOINT SWELLING; LABORATORY TEST; MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; TERATOGENICITY; VIRUS CARRIER; VIRUS CHARACTERIZATION; VIRUS DETECTION; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS IDENTIFICATION; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS ISOLATION; VIRUS MORPHOLOGY; VIRUS RESISTANCE; VIRUS STRAIN; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; VIRUS VIRULENCE; ZOONOSIS; ANIMAL; CLASSIFICATION; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; GENETICS; GEOGRAPHY;

ARBOVIRUS; MURINAE; WEST NILE VIRUS;

ALPHAVIRUS INFECTIONS; ANIMALS; CHIKUNGUNYA VIRUS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; GEOGRAPHY; HUMANS; ZOONOSES;

EID: 34548241400     PISSN: 00221317     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.82858-0     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Adebajo, A. O. (1996). Rheumatic manifestations of tropical diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 8, 85-89.
2. Andrei, G. & De Clercq, E. (1993). Molecular approaches for the treatment of hemorrhagic fever virus infections. Antiviral Res 22, 45-75.
3. Anthony, R. P. & Brown, D. T. (1991). Protein-protein interactions in an alphavirus membrane. J Virol 65, 1187-1194.
4. Banerjee, K., Mourja, D. T. & Malunjkar, A. S. (1988). Susceptibility & transmissibility of different geographical strains of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes to Chikungunya virus. Indian J Med Res 87, 134-138.
5. Bedekar, S. D. & Pavri, K. M. (1969). Studies with Chikungunya virus. II. Serological survey of humans and animals in India. Indian J Med Res 57, 1193-1197.
6. Brighton, S. W. (1981). Chikungunya virus infections. S Afr Med J 59, 552.
7. Brighton, S. W. (1984). Chloroquine phosphate treatment of chronic Chikungunya arthritis. An open pilot study. S Afr Med J 66, 217-218.
8. Brighton, S. W. & Simson, I. W. (1984). A destructive arthropathy following Chikungunya virus arthritis - a possible association. Clin Rheumatol 3, 253-258.
9. Brighton, S. W., Prozesky, O. W. & de la Harpe, A. L. (1983). Chikungunya virus infection. A retrospective study of 107 cases. S Afr Med J 63, 313-315.
10. Briolant, S., Garin, D., Scaramozzino, N., Jouan, A. & Crance, J. M. (2004). In vitro inhibition of Chikungunya and Semliki Forest viruses replication by antiviral compounds: synergistic effect of interferon-α and ribavirin combination. Antiviral Res 61, 111-117.
11. Burke, D. S., Nisalak, A. & Nimmannitya, S. (1985). Disappearance of Chikungunya virus from Bangkok. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 79, 419-420.
12. Calisher, C. H. (1999). Chikungunya, O'nyong nyong and Mayaro viruses (Togaviridae). In Encyclopedia of Virology, 2nd edn, pp. 236-241. Edited by A. Granoff & R. G. Webster. London: Elsevier Science & Technology Books.
13. Carey, D. E. (1971). Chikungunya and dengue: a case of mistaken identity? J Hist Med Allied Sci 26, 243-262.
14. Casals, J. & Whitman, L. (1957). Mayaro virus: a new human disease agent. I. Relationship to other arbor viruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg 6, 1004-1011.
15. Chastel, C. (1963). Human infections in Cambodia by the chikungunya virus or an apparently closely related agent. I. Clinical aspects. Isolations and identification of the viruses. Serology. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 56, 892-915 (in French).
16. Deller, J. J., Jr & Russell, P. K. (1967). An analysis of fevers of unknown origin in American soldiers in Vietnam. Ann Intern Med 66, 1129-1143.
17. Deller, J. J., Jr & Russell, P. K (1968). Chikungunya disease. Am J Trop Med Hyg 17, 107-111.
18. Deneau, D. G. & Farber, E. M. (1975). The treatment of psoriasis with azaribine. Dermatologica 151, 158-163.
19. Diallo, M., Thonnon, J., Traore-Lamizana, M. & Fontenille, D. (1999). Vectors of chikungunya virus in Senegal: current data and transmission cycles. Am J Trop Med Hyg 60, 281-286.
20. Eckels, K. H., Harrison, V. R., Summers, P. L. & Russell, P. K. (1980). Dengue-2 vaccine: preparation from a small-plaque virus clone. Infect Immun 27, 175-180.
21. Edelman, R., Tacket, C. O., Wasserman, S. S., Bodison, S. A., Perry, J. G. & Mangiafico, J. A. (2000). Phase II safety and immunogenicity study of live chikungunya virus vaccine TSI-GSD-218. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62, 681-685.
22. Ekstrom, M., Liljestrom, P. & Garoff, H. (1994). Membrane protein lateral interactions control Semliki Forest virus budding. EMBO J 13, 1058-1064.
23. Fourie, E D. & Morrison, J. G. (1979). Rheumatoid arthritic syndrome after chikungunya fever. S Afr Med J 56, 130-132.
24. Fraser, J. R. (1986). Epidemic polyarthritis and Ross River virus disease. Clin Rheum Dis 12, 369-388.
25. Fraser, J. R. & Becker, G. J. (1984). Mononuclear cell types in chronic synovial effusions of Ross River virus disease. Aust N Z J Med 14, 505-506.
26. Garoff, H. & Simons, K. (1974). Location of the spike glycoproteins in the Semliki Forest virus membrane. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 71, 3988-3992.
27. Garoff, H., Hewson, R. & Opstelten, D. J. E. (1998). Virus maturation by budding. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 62, 1171-1190.
28. Greene, I. P., Paessler, S., Austgen, L., Anishchenko, M., Brault, A. C., Bowen, R. A. & Weaver, S. C. (2005). Envelope glycoprotein mutations mediate equine amplification and virulence of epizootic venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. J Virol 79, 9128-9133.
29. Grieder, F. B. & Vogel, S. N. (1999). Role of interferon and interferon regulatory factors in early protection against Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. Virology 257, 106-118.
30. Gubler, D. J. (2001). Human arbovirus infections worldwide. Ann N Y Acad Sci 951, 13-24.
31. Halstead, S. B., Nimmannitya, S. & Margiotta, M. R. (1969a). Dengue and chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962-1964. II. Observations on disease in outpatients. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18, 972-983.
32. Halstead, S. B., Udomsakdi, S., Singharaj, P. & Nisalak A. (1969b). Dengue chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962-1964. 3. Clinical, epidemiologic, and virologic observations on disease in non-indigenous white persons. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18, 984-996.
33. Halstead, S. B., Udomsakdi, S., Scanlon, J. E. & Rohitayodhin, S. (1969c). Dengue and chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962-1964. V. Epidemiologic observations outside Bangkok. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18, 1022-1033.
34. Halstead, S. B., Scanlon, J. E., Umpaivit, P. & Udomsakdi, S. (1969d). Dengue and chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962-1964. IV. Epidemiologic studies in the Bangkok metropolitan area. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18, 997-1021.
35. Halstead, S. B., Eckels, K. H., Putvatana, R., Larsen, L K & Marchette, N. J. (1984). Selection of attenuated dengue 4 viruses by serial passage in primary kidney cells. IV. Characterization of a vaccine candidate in fetal rhesus lung cells. Am J Trop Med Hyg 33, 679-683.
36. Hammon, W. M., Rudnick, A. & Sather, G. E. (1960). Viruses associated with epidemic hemorrhagic fevers of the Philippines and Thailand. Science 131, 1102-1103.
37. Harley, D., Sleigh, A. & Ritchie, S. (2001). Ross River virus transmission, infection, and disease: a cross-disciplinary review. Clin Microbiol Rev 14, 909-932.
38. Harrison, V. R., Binn, L. N. & Randall, R. (1967). Comparative immunogenicities of chikungunya vaccines prepared in avian and mammalian tissues. Am J Trop Med Hyg 16, 786-791.
39. Harrison, V. R., Eckels, K. H., Bartelloni, P. J. & Hampton, C. (1971). Production and evaluation of a formalin-killed Chikungunya vaccine. J Immunol 107, 643-647.
40. Jadhav, M., Namboodripad, M., Carman, R. H., Carey, D. E. & Myers, R. M. (1965). Chikungunya disease in infants and children in Vellore: a report of clinical and haematological features of virologically proved cases. Indian J Med Res 53, 764-776.
41. Johnson, B. K., Chanas, A. C., Shockley, P., Squires, E. J., Gardner, P., Wallace, C., Simpson, D. I., Bowen, E. T., Platt, G. S. & other authors (1977). Arbovirus isolations from, and serological studies on, wild and domestic vertebrates from Kano Plain, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 71, 512-517.
42. Johnston, R. E. & Davis, N. L. (2004). Future vaccines against emerging encephalitides. Arch Virol Suppl 18, 207-220.
43. Josseran, L., Paquet, C., Zehgnoun, A., Caillere, N., Le Tertre, A., Solet J. L. & Ledrans, M. (2006). Chikungunya disease outbreak, Reunion Island. Emerg Infect Dis 12, 1994-1995.
44. Jupp, P. G. & McIntosh, B. M. (1988). Chikungunya virus disease. In The Arbovirus: Epidemiology and Ecology, Vol II, pp. 137-157. Edited by T. P. Monath. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
45. Jupp, P. G. & McIntosh, B. M. (1990). Aedes furcifer and other mosquitoes as vectors of chikungunya. virus at Mica, northeastern Transvaal, South Africa. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 6, 415-420.
46. Kit, L. S. (2002). Emerging and re-emerging diseases in Malaysia. Asia Pac J Public Health 14, 6-8.
47. Laras, K., Sukri, N. C., Larasati, R. P., Bangs, M. J., Kosim, R., Djauzi, Wandra, T., Master, J., Kosasih, H. & other authors (2005). Tracking the re-emergence of epidemic chikungunya virus in Indonesia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 99, 128-141.
48. Latif, Z., Gates, D., Wust, C. J. & Brown, A. (1979). Cross protection among togaviruses in nude mice and littermates. J Gen Virol 45, 89-98.
49. Levitt, N. H., Ramsburg, H. H., Hasty, S. E., Repik, P. M., Cole, F. E., Jr & Lupton, H. W. (1986). Development of an attenuated strain of chikungunya virus for use in vaccine production. Vaccine 4, 157-162.
50. Lidbury, B. A. & Mahalingam, S. (2000). Specific ablation of antiviral gene expression in macrophages by antibody-dependent enhancement of Ross River virus infection. J Virol 74, 8376-8381.
51. Lidbury, B. A., Simeonovic, C., Maxwell, G. E., Marshall, I. D. & Hapel, A. J. (2000). Macrophage-induced muscle pathology results in morbidity and mortality for Ross River virus-infected mice. J Infect Dis 181, 27-34.
52. Linn, M. L., Mateo, L., Gardner, J. & Suhrbier, A. (1998). Alphavirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes recognize a cross-reactive epitope from the capsid protein and can eliminate virus from persistently infected macrophages. J Virol 72, 5146-5153.
53. Lumsden, W. H. R. (1955). An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952-53. II. General description and epidemiology. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 49, 33-57.
54. Mahalingam, S., Friedland, J. S., Heise, M. T., Rulli, N. E., Meanger, J. & Lidbury, B. A. (2003). Chemokines and viruses: friends or foes? Trends Microbiol 11, 383-391.
55. Marchette, N. J., Rudnick A., Garcia, R. & MacVean, D. W. (1978). Alphaviruses in Peninsular Malaysia. I. Virus isolations and animal serology. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 9, 317-329.
56. Mason, P. J. & Haddow, A. J. (1957). An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952-53; an additional note on Chikungunya virus isolations and serum antibodies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 51, 238-240.
57. Mateo, L., La Linn, M., McColl, S. R., Cross, S., Gardner, J. & Suhrbier, A. (2000). An arthrogenic alphavirus induces monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and interleukin-8. Intervirology 43, 55-60.
58. McGill, P. E.(1995). Viral infections: alpha-viral arthropathy. Baillieres Clin Rheumatol 9, 145-150.
59. McIntosh, B. M. (1961). Susceptibility of some African wild rodents to infection with various arthropod-borne viruses. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 55, 63-68.
60. McIntosh, B. M., Jupp, P. G. & Dos Santos, I. (1977). Rural epidemic of chikungunya in South Africa with involvement of Aedes (Diceromyia) furcifer (Edwards) and baboons. S Afr J Sci 73, 267-269.
61. Moore, D. L., Reddy, S., Akinkugbe, F. M., Lee, V. H., David-West, T. S., Causey, O. R. & Carey, D. E. (1974). An epidemic of chikungunya fever at Ibadan, Nigeria, 1969. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 68, 59-68.
62. Mourya, D. T. (1987). Absence of transovarial transmission of Chikungunya virus in Aedes aegypti & Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. Indian J Med Res 85, 593-595.
63. Mourya, D. T. & Banerjee, K. (1987). Experimental transmission of chikungunya virus by Aedes vittatus mosquitoes. Indian J Med Res 86, 269-271.
64. Mourya, D. T., Gokhale, M. D., Malunjkar, A. S., Bhat, H. R. & Banerjee, K. (1994). Inheritance of oral susceptibility of Aedes aegypti to chikungunya virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51, 295-300.
65. Mourya, D. T., Thakare, J. R., Gokhale, M. D., Powers, A. M., Hundekar, S. L., Jayakumar, P. C., Bondre, V. P., Shouche, Y. S. & Padbidri, V. S. (2001). Isolation of chikungunya virus from Aedes aegypti mosquitoes collected in the town of Yawat, Pune District, Maharashtra State, India. Acta Virol 45, 305-309.
66. Munasinghe, D. R., Amarasekera, P. J. & Fernando, C. F. (1966). An epidemic of dengue-like fever in Ceylon (chikungunya) - a clinical and haematological study. Ceylon Med J 11, 129-142.
67. Myers, R. M. & Carey, D. E. (1967). Concurrent isolation from patient of two arboviruses, chikungunya and dengue type 2. Science 157, 1307-1308.
68. Myers, R. M., Carey, D. E., Reuben, R., Jesudass, E. S., De Ranitz, C. & Jadhav, M. (1965). The 1964 epidemic of dengue-like fever in South India: isolation of chikungunya virus from human sera and from mosquitoes. Indian J Med Res 53, 694-701.
69. Nalca, A., Fellows, P. F. & Whitehouse, C. A. (2003). Vaccines and animal models for arboviral encephalitides. Antiviral Res 60, 153-174.
70. Nimmannitya, S., Halstead, S. B., Cohen, S. N. & Margiotta, M. R. (1969). Dengue and chikungunya virus infection in man in Thailand, 1962-1964. I. Observations on hospitalized patients with hemorrhagic fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg 18, 954-971.
71. Nur, Y. A., Groen, J., Heuvelmans, H., Tuynman, W., Copra, C. & Osterhaus, A. D. (1999). An outbreak of West Nile fever among migrants in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo. Am J Trop Med Hyg 61, 885-898.
72. Obeyesekere, I. & Hermon, Y. (1972). Myocarditis and cardiomyopathy after arbovirus infections (dengue and chikungunya fever). Br Heart J 34, 821-827.
73. Obeyesekere, I. & Hermon, Y. (1973). Arbovirus heart disease: myocarditis and cardiomyopathy following dengue and chikungunya fever - a follow-up study. Am Heart J 85, 186-194.
74. Padbidri, V. S. & Gnaneswar, T. T. (1979). Epidemiological investigations of chikungunya epidemic at Barsi, Maharashtra state, India. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 23, 445-451.
75. Paredes, A. M., Brown, D. T., Rothnagel, R., Chiu, W., Schoepp, R. J., Johnston, R. E. & Prasad, B. V. (1993). Three-dimensional structure of a membrane-containing virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90, 9095-9099.
76. Parola, P., de Lamballerie, X., Jourdan, J., Rovery, C., Valliant V., Minodier, P., Brouqui, P., Flahault A., Raoult, D. & Charrel, R. N. (2006). Novel chikungunya virus variant in travellers returning from Indian Ocean islands. Emerg Infect Dis 12, 1493-1499.
77. Pastorino, B., Muyembe-Tamfum, J. J., Bessaud, M., Tock, F., Tolou, H., Durand, J. P. & Peyrefitte, C. N. (2004). Epidemic resurgence of Chikungunya virus in democratic Republic of the Congo: identification of a new central African strain. J Med Virol 74, 277-282.
78. Paul, S. D. & Singh, K. R. (1968). Experimental infection of Macaca radiata with Chikungunya virus and transmission of virus by mosquitoes. Indian J Med Res 56, 802-811.
79. Pavri, K. M. (1964). Presence of chikungunya antibodies in human sera collected from Calcutta and Jamshedpur before 1963. Indian J Med Res 52, 698-702.
80. Peyrefitte, C. N., Rousset, D., Pastorino, B. A. M., Poulliot, R., Bessaud, M., Tock, F., Mansaray, H., Merle, O. L, Pascual, A. M. & other authors (2007). Chikungunya virus, Cameroon, 2006. Emerg Infect Dis 13, 768-771.
81. Porter, K. R., Tan, R., Istary, Y., Suharyono, W., Sutaryo, Widjaja, S., Ma'Roef, C., Listiyaningsih, E., Kosasih, H. & other authors (2004). A serological study of Chikungunya virus transmission in Yogyakarta, Indonesia: evidence for the first outbreak since 1982. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 35, 408-415.
82. Powers, A. M., Brault, A. C., Tesh, R. B. & Weaver, S. C. (2000). Re-emergence of Chikungunya and O'nyong-nyong viruses: evidence for distinct geographical lineages and distant evolutionary relationships. J Gen Virol 81, 471-479.
83. Ravi, V. (2006). Re-emergence of chikungunya virus in India. Indian J Med Microbiol 24, 83-84.
84. Rayner, J. O., Dryga, S. A. & Kamrud, K. I. (2002). Alphavirus vectors and vaccination. Rev Med Virol 12, 279-296.
85. Reiter, P., Fontenille, D. & Paupy, C. (2006). Aedes albopictus as an epidemic vector of chikungunya virus: another emerging problem? Lancet Infect Dis 6, 463-464.
86. Robinson, M. C. (1955). An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika Territory, in 1952-53. I. Clinical features. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 49, 28-32.
87. Ross, R. W. (1956). The Newala epidemic. III. The virus: isolation, pathogenic properties and relationship to the epidemic. J Hyg (Lond) 54, 177-191.
88. Rulli, N. E., Suhrbier, A., Hueston, L., Heise, M. T., Tupanceska, D., Zaid, A., Wilmes, A., Gilmore, K., Lidbury, B. A. & Mahalingam, S. (2005). Ross River virus: molecular and cellular aspects of disease pathogenesis. Pharmacol Ther 107, 329-342.
89. Ryman, K D., Klimstra, W. B., Nguyen, K. B., Biron, C. A. & Johnston, R. E. (2000). Alpha/beta interferon protects adult mice from fatal Sindbis virus infection and is an important determinant of cell and tissue tropism. J Virol 74, 3366-3378.
90. Sarkar, J. K., Chatterjee, S. N., Chakravarti, S. K. & Mitra, A. C. (1965a). Chikungunya virus infection with haemorrhagic manifestations. Indian J Med Res 53, 921-925.
91. Sarkar, J. K., Chatterjee, S. N., Chakravarty, S. K. & Mitra, A. C. (1965b). The causative agent of Calcutta haemorrhagic fever: chikungunya or dengue. Bull Calcutta Sch Trop Med 13, 53-54.
92. Saxena, S. K., Singh, M., Mishra, N. & Lakshmi, V. (2006). Resurgence of chikungunya virus in India: an emerging threat. Euro Surveill 11, E060810-E060812.
93. Schlesinger, M. & Schlesinger, S. (1986). Formation and assembly of alphavirus glycoproteins. In The Togaviridae and Flaviviridae, pp. 121-148. Edited by S. Schelsinger & M. J. Schlesinger. New York: Plenum Publishing Corp.
94. Schuffenecker, I., Iteman, I., Michault, A., Murri, S., Frangeul, L., Vaney, M. C., Lavenir, R., Pardigon, N., Reynes, J. M. & other authors (2006). Genome microevolution of chikungunya viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak. PLoS Med 3, e263.
95. Sergon, K., Yahaya, A. A., Brown, J., Bedja, S. A., Agata, N., Allaranger, Y., Ball, M., Powers, A. M., Ofula, V. & other authors (2007). Seroprevalence of chikungunya virus infection on Grande Comore Island, Union of the Comoros, March 2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76, 1189-1193.
96. Simizu, B., Yamamoto, K, Hashimoto, K. & Ogata, T. (1984). Structural proteins of Chikungunya virus. J Virol 51, 254-258.
97. Soekiman, S. (1987). A study on susceptibility of Indonesia colonies of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes to experimental infection with dengue type 3 and chikungunya viruses. Kobe J Med Sci 33, 19-34.
98. Soekiman, S., Matsumura, T. & Yamanishi, H. (1986a). Multiplication of chikungunya virus in salivary glands of Aedes albopictus (Oahu strain) mosquitoes: an electron microscopic study. Jpn J Med Sci Biol 39, 207-211.
99. Soekiman, S., Konishi, E. J. & Matsumura, T. (1986b). Susceptibility of Indonesia colonies of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes to experimental infection with chikungunya virus. Kobe J Med Sci 32, 127-132.
100. Spence, L. P. & Thomas, L. (1959). Application of haemagglutination and complement fixation techniques to the identification and serological classification of arthropod-borne viruses; studies on Chikungunya and Makonde viruses. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 53, 248-255.
101. Tesh, R. B. (1982). Arthritides caused by mosquito-borne viruses. Annu Rev Med 33, 31-40.
102. Thaikruea, L., Chareamsook, O, Reanphumkarnkit, S., Dissomboon, P., Phonjan, R., Ratchbud, S., Kounsang, Y. & Buranapiyawong, D. (1997). Chikungunya in Thailand: a re-emerging disease? Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 28, 359-364.
103. Thaung, U., Ming, C. K., Swe, T. & Thein, S. (1975). Epidemiological features of dengue and chikungunya infections in Burma. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 6, 276-283.
104. Thein, S., La Linn, M., Aaskov, J., Aung, M. M., Aye, M., Zaw, A. & Myint, A. (1992). Development of a simple indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of immunoglobulin M antibody in serum from patients following an outbreak of chikungunya virus infection in Yangon, Myanmar. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86, 438-442.
105. Thonnon, J., Spiegel, A., Diallo, M., Diallo, A. & Fontenille, D. (1999). Chikungunya virus outbreak in Senegal in 1996 and 1997. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 92, 79-82 (in French).
106. Turell, M. J. & Malinoski, F. J. (1992). Limited potential for mosquito transmission of a live, attenuated chikungunya virus vaccine. Am J Trop Med Hyg 47, 98-103.
107. Turell, M. J., Beaman, J. R. & Tammariello, R. F. (1992). Susceptibility of selected strains of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) to chikungunya virus. J Med Entomol 29, 49-53.
108. van Rossum, T. G., Vulto, A. G., Hop, W. C., Brouwer, J. T., Niesters, H. G. & Schalm, S. W. (1999). Intravenous glycyrrhizin for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase I/II trial. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 14, 1093-1099.
109. Vanlandingham, D. L., Tsetsarkin, K, Hong, C., Klingler, K, McElroy, K L, Lehane, M. J. & Higgs, S. (2005). Development and characterization of a double subgenomic chikungunya virus infectious clone to express heterologous genes in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 35, 1162-1170.
110. Warner, E, Garcia-Diaz, J, Balsamo, G., Shranatan, S., Bergmann, A, Blauwet L., Sohail, M., Baddour, L., Reed, C. & other authors (2006). Chikungunya fever diagnosed among international travelers - United States, 2005-2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55, 1040-1042.
111. Weaver, S. C., Frey, T. K., Huang, H. V., Kinney, R. M., Rice, C. M., Roehrig, J. T., Shope, R. E. & Strauss, E G. (2005). Togaviridae. In Virus Taxonomy. Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, pp. 999-1008. Edited by C. M. Fauquet, M. A. Mayo, J. Maniloff, U. Desselberger & L. A. Ball. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press.
112. Wust, C. J., Crombie, R. & Brown, A. (1987). Passive protection across subgroups of alphaviruses by hyperimmune non-cross-neutralizing anti-Sindbis serum. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 184, 56-63.
113. Yadav, P., Shouche, Y. S., Munot, H. P., Mishra, A. C. & Mourya, D. T. (2003a). Genotyping of Chikungunya virus isolates from India during 1963-2000 by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Acta Virol 47, 125-127.
114. Yadav, P., Gokhale, M. D., Barde, P. V., Singh, D. K, Mishra, A. C. & Mourya, D. T. (2003b). Experimental transmission of Chikungunya virus by Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes. Acta Virol 47, 45-47.