Cognitive functioning in healthy aging: The role of reserve and lifestyle factors early in life

Gerontologist

Volumn 47, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 307-322

  Fritsch, Thomas ^a   McClendon, McKee J ^b   Smyth, Kathleen A ^b,c   Lerner, Alan J ^b,d   Friedland, Robert P ^c,d   Larsen, Janet D ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MILWAUKEE   (United States)

^b University Memory and Aging Center   (United States)

^c CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e JOHN CARROLL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Activity level; Cognition; IQ; Reserve

Indexed keywords

AGED; AGING; ARTICLE; COGNITION; EDUCATION; EPISODIC MEMORY; FEMALE; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; LEISURE; LIFESTYLE; MALE; NORMAL HUMAN; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; VERBAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 34548186441     PISSN: 00169013     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/geront/47.3.307     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. Aartsen, M. L., Smits, C. H. M., van Tilburg, T., Knipscheer, K. C. P. M., & Deeg, D. J. H. (2002). Activity in older adults: Cause or consequence of cognitive functioning? A longitudinal study of everyday activities and cognitive performance in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57B, P153-P162.
2. Alwin, D. F., & Hauser, R. M. (1975). The decomposition of effects in path analysis. American Sociological Review, 40, 37-47.
3. Arbuckle, J. L. (2005). AMOS Version 6 [computer program]. Spring House, PA: AMOS Development Corp.
4. Arbuckle, T. Y., Gold, D., & Andres, D. (1986). Cognitive functioning of older people in relation to social and personality variables. Psychology and Aging, 1, 55-62.
5. Arbuckle, T. Y., Gold, D. P., Andres, D., Schwartzman, A., & Chaikelson, J. (1992). The role of psychosocial context, age, and intelligence in memory performance of older men. Psychology and Aging, 7, 25-36.
6. Ball, L. J., Bisher, G. B., & Birge, S. J. (1999). A simple test of central processing speed: An extension of the Short Blessed Test. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 47, 1359-1363.
7. Beck, M. D. (1986). The Otis and Otis-Lennon tests: Their contributions. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 5, 12-18.
8. Christensen, H., & Mackinnon, A. (1994). The association between mental, social and physical activity and cognitive performance in young and old subjects. Age and Ageing, 22, 175-182.
9. CNN/Money. (2004). Women's work? Almost anything. Retrieved February 11, 2007, from http://money.cnn.com/2004/04/23/pf/women_occupations/index.htm
10. Debanne, S. M., Patterson, M. B., Dick, R., Riedel, T. M., Schnell, A., & Rowland, D. Y. (1997). Validation of a telephone cognitive assessment battery. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 45, 1352-1359.
11. Eccles, J. S., Barber, B. L., Stone, M., & Hunt, J. (2003). Extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 865-889.
12. Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). "Mini-mental state": A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189-198.
13. Friedland, R. P. (1993). Epidemiology, education, and the ecology of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 43, 246-249.
14. Friedland, R. P., Fritsch, T., Smyth, K. A., Koss, E., Lerner, A. J., Chien, C. H., et al. (2001). Patients with Alzheimer's disease have reduced activities in midlife compared with healthy control-group members. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 3440-3445.
15. Fritsch, T., Larsen, J. D., & Smyth, K. A. (in press). The role of adolescent IQ and gender in the use of cognitive support for remembering in aging. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition.
16. Fritsch, T., Smyth, K. A., McClendon, M. J., Ogrocki, P. K., Santillan, C., Larsen, J. D., et al. (2005). Associations between dementia/mild cognitive impairment and cognitive performance and activity levels in youth. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53, 1191-1196.
17. Hibber, C., Yau, J. L., & Seckl, J. R. (2000), Glucocorticoids and the ageing hippocampus. Journal of Anatomy, 197, 553-562.
18. Herlitz, A., Nilsson, L. G., & Backman, L. (1997). Gender differences in episodic memory. Memory and Cognition, 25, 801-811.
19. Hultscb, D. F., Hammer, M., & Small, B. J. (1993). Age differences in cognitive performance in later life: Relationships to self-reported health and activity life style. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 42B, P1-P11.
20. Hultsch, D. F., Small, B. J., Hertzog, C., & Dixon, R. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, 14, 245-263.
21. Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1988). Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 53-69.
22. Katzman, R. (1993). Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 43, 13-20.
23. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., McGuire L., Robles, T. F., & Glaser, R. (2002). Emotions, morbidity, and mortality: New perspectives from psychoneuroimmunology. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 83-107.
24. Kliegel, M., Zimprich, D., & Rott, C. (2004). Life-long intellectual activities mediate the predictive effect of early education on cognitive impairment in centenarians: A retrospective study. Aging and Mental Health, 8, 430-437.
25. Kohn, M. L., & Schooler, C. (1978). The reciprocal effects of the substantive complexity of work and intellectual flexibility: A longitudinal assessment. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 24-52.
26. Kramer, A. F., Bherer, L., Colcombe, S. J., Dong, W., & Greenough, W. T. (2004). Environmental influences on cognitive and brain plasticity during aging. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 59A, M940-M957.
27. Luna, B., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). The emergence of collaborative brain function: fMRI studies of the development of response inhibition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 296-309.
28. Mackinnon, A., Christensen, H., Hofer, S. M., Korten, A. E., & Jorm, A. F. (2003). Use it and still lose it? The association between activity and cognitive performance established using latent growth techniques in a community sample. Aging, Neuropsychology, & Cognition, 10, 215-229.
29. McClendon, M. J. (1994). Multiple regression and causal analysis. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock.
30. Meinz, E. J., & Salthouse, T. A. (1998). Is age kinder to females than males? Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 56-70.
31. Miller, J., Slomczynski, K. M., & Kohn, M. L. (1985). Continuity of learning-generalization: The effect of job on men's intellectual process in the United States and Poland. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 593-615.
32. Miller, W. S. (1924). The variation and significance of intelligence quotients obtained from group tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 15, 359-366.
33. MSNBC. (2006, April 6). When it comes to the mind, use it or lose it. Retrieved November 3, 2006, from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12172384/
34. Otis, A. S. (1928). Otis self-administering tests of mental ability, manual of directions and key: For intermediate and higher examinations. Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: World Book Company.
35. Pedhazur, E. J. (1982). Multiple regression in behavioral research (2nd ed.). New York: Holt.
36. Peterson, R. C., Smith, G. E., Waring, S. C., Ivnik, R. J., Tangalos, E. G., & Kokmen, E. (1999). Mild cognitive impairment: Clinical characterization and outcome. Archives of Neurology, 56, 303-308.
37. Plassman, B. L., Newman, T. T., Welsh, K. A., Helms, M., & Breitner, J. C. S. (1994). Properties of the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status: Applications in epidemiological and longitudinal studies. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 7, 235-241.
38. Plassman, B. L., Welsh, K. A., Helms, M., Page, W. F., & Breitner, J. C. (1995). Intelligence and education as predictors of cognitive state in late life: A 50-year follow-up. Neurology, 45, 1446-1450.
39. Richards, M., & Deary, I. J. (2005). A life course approach to cognitive reserve: A model for cognitive aging and development? Annals of Neurology, 58, 617-622.
40. Richards, M., Hardy, R., & Wadsworth, M. E. J. (2003). Does active leisure protect cognition? Evidence from a national birth cohort. Social Science and Medicine, 56, 785-792.
41. Richards, M., & Sacker, A. (2003). Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 614-624.
42. Rosen, W. G. (1980). Verbal fluency in aging and dementia. Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2, 135-136.
43. Salthouse, T. A. (1991). Theoretical perspectives on cognitive aging. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44. Satz, P. (1993). Brain reserve capacity on symptom onset after brain injury: A formulation and review of evidence for threshold theory. Neuropsychology, 7, 273-295.
45. Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., & Pennak S. (2005). An historical framework for cohort differences in intelligence. Research on Human Development, 2, 43-67.
46. Schooler, C., & Mulatu, M. S. (2001). The reciprocal effects of leisure time activities and intellectual functioning in older people: A longitudinal analysis. Psychology and Aging, 16, 466-482.
47. Schweinsburg, A. D., Nagel, B. J., & Tapert, S. F. (2005). fMRI reveals alteration of spatial working memory networks across adolescence. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 631-644.
48. Smyth, K. A., Fritsch, T., Cook, T. B., McClendon, M. J., Santillan, C. E., & Friedland, R. P. (2004). Worker functions and traits associated with occupations and the development of AD. Neurology, 63, 498-503.
49. Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448-460.
50. Swaab, D. (1991). Brain aging and Alzheimer's disease: "Wear and tear" versus "use it or lose it." Neurobiology of Aging, 12, 317-324.
51. U.S. Census Bureau. (2000). DP-1. Profile of general demographic characteristics: 2000. Retrieved February 4, 2007, from http://factfinder. census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=16000US3916014&-qr_name= DEC_2000_SF4_U_DP1&-ds_name=D&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false
52. U.S. Census Bureau. (2001, January 18). Educational attainment. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/population/www/popprofile/ educattn.html
53. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000, November). Healthy people 2010, 2nd ed: With understanding and improving health and objectives for improving health (2 vols.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
54. Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale - revised manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
55. Welsh, K. A., Breitner, J. C. S., & Magruder-Habib, K. M. (1993). Detection of dementia in the elderly using telephone screening of cognitive status. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 6, 103-110.
56. Welsh, K. A., Butters, N., Mohs, R. C., Beekly, D., Edland, S., Fillenbaum, G., et al. (1994). The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD): V. A normative study of the neuropsychological battery. Neurology, 44, 609-614.
57. Wilson, R. S., Barnes, L. L., Krueger, K. R., Hoganson, G., Bienias, J. L., & Bennet, D. A. (2005). Early and late life cognitive activity and cognitive systems in old age. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 400-407.