Diagnosis and treatment of agoraphobia with panic disorder

CNS Drugs

Volumn 21, Issue 9, 2007, Pages 741-764

  Perugi, Giulio ^a,b   Frare, Franco ^b,c   Toni, Cristina ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

^b G DE LISIO INSTITUTE OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES   (Italy)

^c Adults Mental Health Unit   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPRAZOLAM; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CITALOPRAM; CLOMIPRAMINE; CLONAZEPAM; DESIPRAMINE; DIAZEPAM; ESCITALOPRAM; FLUOXETINE; FLUVOXAMINE; IMIPRAMINE; LORAZEPAM; MOCLOBEMIDE; MOOD STABILIZER; PAROXETINE; PHENELZINE; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; TRANYLCYPROMINE; VENLAFAXINE;

AGITATION; AGORAPHOBIA; ANTICHOLINERGIC EFFECT; ANXIETY; ANXIETY DISORDER; ASTHENIA; ATAXIA; AUDITORY HALLUCINATION; AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; BLURRED VISION; CHILL; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE THERAPY; CONFUSION; DEPRESSION; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; DIARRHEA; DISEASE COURSE; DIZZINESS; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG TOLERABILITY; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; EXTRASYSTOLE; FALLING; FATIGUE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEALTH CARE UTILIZATION; HUMAN; HYPERESTHESIA; HYPERPROLACTINEMIA; INSOMNIA; IRRITABILITY; LONG TERM CARE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MEMORY DISORDER; MENTAL CONCENTRATION; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL PATIENT; MONOTHERAPY; MUSCLE CRAMP; NAUSEA; NERVOUSNESS; NIGHTMARE; PANIC; PARESTHESIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHIATRIC DIAGNOSIS; PSYCHOTHERAPY; RELAPSE; REVIEW; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; SHORT COURSE THERAPY; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; SWEATING; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TACHYCARDIA; TINNITUS; TRAFFIC ACCIDENT; TREMOR; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VERTIGO; WEIGHT GAIN; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; XEROSTOMIA;

AGORAPHOBIA; ANIMALS; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; HUMANS; PANIC DISORDER; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES;

EID: 34548103232     PISSN: 11727047     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00023210-200721090-00004     Document Type: Review

References (222)

1. Cassano GB, Petracca A, Perugi G, et al. Derealization and panic attacks: a clinical evaluation on 150 patients with panic disorder/agoraphobia. Compr Psychiatry 1989 Jan-Feb; 30 (1): 5-12
2. Toni C, Cassano GB, Perugi G, et al. Psychosensorial and related phenomena in panic disorder and in temporal lobe epilepsy. Compr Psychiatry 1996 Mar-Apr; 37 (2): 125-33
3. Toni C, Perugi G, Frare F. A prospective naturalistic study of 326 panic-agoraphobic patients treated with antidepressants. Pharmacopsychiatry 2000 Jul; 33 (4): 121-31
4. Craske MG, Barlow DH. Nocturnal panic. J Nerv Ment Dis 1989 Mar; 177 (3): 160-7
5. Hauri PJ, Friedman M, Ravaris CL. Sleep in patients with spontaneous panic attacks. Sleep 1989 Aug; 12 (4): 323-37
6. Merritt-Davis O, Balon R. Nocturnal panic: biology, psychopathology, and its contribution to the expression of panic disorder. Depress Anxiety 2003; 18 (4): 221-7
7. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed., text rev. Washington, DC; American Psychiatric Association, 2000
8. Benedetti A, Perugi G, Toni C. Hypochondriasis and illness phobia in panic-agoraphobic patients. Compr Psychiatry 1997 Mar-Apr; 38 (2): 124-31
9. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994
10. First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, et al. Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV disorders. Research version, non-patient ed. (SCID-I/NP). New York: Biometrics Research State Psychiatric Institute, 2002
11. Sheehan DV, Lecrubier Y, Sheehan KH, et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59 (20): 22-3
12. World Health Organization. Composite international diagnostic interview. V2.0. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997
13. Marks IM, Mathews AM. Brief standard self-rating for phobic patients. Behav Res Therapy 1979; 17: 263-7
14. Chambless DL, Caputo GC, Jasin SE, et al. The mobility inventory for agoraphobia. Behav Res Ther 1985; 23: 35-44
15. Eaton WW, Kessler RC, Wittchen HU, et al. Panic and panic disorder in the United States. Am J Psychiatry 1994 Mar; 151 (3): 413-20
16. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994 Jan; 51 (1): 8-19
17. Sheikh JI, Leskin GA, Klein DF. Gender differences in panic disorder: findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Am J Psychiatry 2002 Jan; 159 (1): 55-8
18. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Jin R, et al. The epidemiology of panic attacks, panic disorder, and agoraphobia in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63: 415-24
19. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980
20. Tyrer P. Classification of anxiety disorders: a critique of DSM-III. J Affect Disord 1986; 11: 99-107
21. Roth M. Anxiety and anxiety disorders: general overview. In Roth M, Noyes Jr R, Barrows GD, editors. Handbook of anxiety: biological, clinical and cultural perspectives. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988: 1-45
22. Breier A, Charney DS, Heninger GR. Agoraphobia with panic attacks: development, diagnostic stability, and course of illness. Arch G Psychiatry 1986; 43: 1029-36
23. Noyes R. The natural history of anxiety disorders. In Roth M, Noyes Jr R, Barrows GD, editors. Handbook of anxiety: biological, clinical and cultural perspectives. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1988: 115-33
24. Fava GA, Grandi S, Canestrari R. Prodromal symptoms in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 45 (12): 1564-7
25. Perugi G, Toni C, Benedetti A, et al. Delineating a putative phobic-anxious temperament in 126 panic agoraphobic patients: toward a rapprochement of European and US views. J Affect Disord 1998; 37: 11-23
26. Sheehan DV, Sheehan KH. The classification of phobic disorders. Int J Psychiatr Med 1982; 12: 243-66
27. Vollrath M, Koch R, Angst J. Panic disorder and sporadic panic: symptoms, diagnosis, prevalence, and overlap with depression. The Zurich Study: IX. Eur Arch Psych Neurol Sci 1990; 239 (4): 221-30
28. Katon W, Vitaliano PP, Russo J, et al. Panic disorder: spectrum of severity and somatization. J Nerv Ment Disord 1987; 175: 12-9
29. Klein DF, Klein HM. The nosology, genetics and theory of spontaneous panic and phobia. In: Tyrer PJ, editor. Psychopharmacology of anxiety. New York; Oxford University Press, 1989: 163-95
30. Weissman MM, Merikangas KR. The epidemiology of anxiety and panic disorders: an update. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 11-7
31. Swoboda H, Amering M, Windhaber J, et al. The long-term course of panic disorder: an 11 year follow-up. J Anxiety Disord 2003; 17 (2): 223-32
32. Villeponteaux VA, Lydiard RB, Laraia MT, et al. The effects of pregnancy on preexisting panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1992 Jun; 53 (6): 201-3
33. Cohen LS, Sichel DA, Dimmock JA, et al. Impact of pregnancy on panic disorder: a case series. J Clin Psychiatry 1994 Jul; 55 (7): 284-8
34. Northcott CJ, Stein MB. Panic disorder in pregnancy. J Clin Psychiatry 1994 Dec; 55 (12): 539-42
35. Hertzberg T, Wahlbeck K. The impact of pregnancy and puerperium on panic disorder: a review. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol 1999 Jun; 20 (2): 59-64
36. Sigmon ST, Dorhofer DM, Rohan KJ, et al. Psychophysiological, somatic, and affective changes across the menstrual cycle in women with panic disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000 Jun; 68 (3): 425-31
37. Sigmon ST, Whitcomb-Smith SR, Rohan KJ, et al. The role of anxiety level, coping styles, and cycle phase in menstrual distress. J Anxiety Disord 2004; 18 (2): 177-91
38. Vickers K, McNally RJ. Is premenstrual dysphoria a variant of panic disorder: a review. Clin Psychol Rev 2004 Dec; 24 (8): 933-56
39. Perugi G, Akiskal HS, Ramacciotti S, et al. Depressive comorbidity of panic, social phobic, and obsessive-compulsive disorders re-examined: is there a bipolar II connection? J Psychiatr Res 1999 Jan-Feb; 33 (1): 53-61
40. Kessler RC, Stang PE, Wittchen HU, et al. Lifetime panic-depression comorbidity in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998 Sep; 55 (9): 801-8
41. Otto MW, Pollack MH, Sachs GS, et al. Alcohol dependence in panic disorder patients. J Psychiatr Res 1992 Jan; 26 (1): 29-38
42. Chignon JM, Lepine JP, Ades J. Panic disorder and alcoholism. Encephale 1991 Nov-Dec; 17 (6): 519-23
43. Lepola U, Koponen H, Leinonen E. A naturalistic 6-year follow-up study of patients with panic disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996 Mar; 93 (3): 181-3
44. Cox BJ, Norton GR, Swinson RP, et al. Substance abuse and panic-related anxiety: a critical review. Behav Res Ther 1990; 28 (5): 385-93
45. Brown TA, Campbell LA, Lehman CL, et al. Current and lifetime comorbidity of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders in a large clinical sample. J Abnorm Psychol 2001; 11:585-99
46. Breier A, Charney DS, Heninger GR. Agoraphobia with panic attacks: development, diagnostic stability and course of illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986; 43: 1029-36
47. Faravelli C, Albanesi G. Agoraphobia with panic attacks: one year prospective follow-up. Compr Psychiatry 1987; 28: 481-7
48. Keller MB, Yonkers KA, Warshaw MG, et al. Remission and relapse in subjects with panic disorder and panic with agoraphobia: a prospective short-interval naturalistic follow-up. J Nerv Ment Dis 1994; 182: 290-6
49. Lelliott PT, Marks IM, Montero WO, et al. Agoraphobics 5 years after imipramine and exposure: outcome and predictors. J Nerv Ment Dis 1987; 175: 599-605
50. Lesser IM, Rubin RT, Pecknold SC, et al. Secondary depression in panic disorder and agoraphobia: frequency, severity and response to treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 437-43
51. Maier W, Buller R. One-year follow-up of panic disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatr Neurol Sci 1988; 238: 105-9
52. Noyes Jr R, Clancy J, Woodsman C, et al. Environmental factors related to the outcome of panic disorder: a seven-year follow-up study. J Nerv Ment Dis 1993; 181: 529-33
53. Scheibe G, Albus M. Predictors of outcome in panic disorder: a 5-year prospective follow up study. J Affect Disorder 1996; 41: 111-6
54. Wittchen H-U. Natural course and spontaneous remissions of untreated anxiety disorders: results of the Munich follow-up study. In: Hand I, Wittchen H-U, editors. Panic and phobias 2. Berlin; Sperlag, 1988: 3-17
55. Mavissakalian M, Hamann MS. DSM-III personality disorder in agoraphobia: II. Changes with treatment. Compr Psychiatry 1987; 28: 356-61
56. Noyes R, Reich J, Christiansen J, et al. Outcome of panic disorder: relationship to diagnostic subtypes and comorbidity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990; 47: 809-18
57. O'Rourke D, Fahy TJ, Brophy J, et al. The Galway Study of panic disorder III: outcome at 5 to 6 years. Br J Psychiatry 1996; 168: 462-9
58. Reich JH. DSM-III personality disorders and the outcome of treated panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 145: 1149-52
59. Pollack MH, Otto MW, Rosenbaum J, et al. Longitudinal course of panic disorder: finding from the Massachusetts General Hospital Naturalistic Study. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 12-6
60. Simon GE, VonKorff M. Somatization and psychiatric disorder in the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. Am J Psychiatry 1991 Nov; 148 (11): 1494-500
61. Lin EH, Katon W, Von Korff M, et al. Frustrating patients: physician and patient perspectives among distressed high users of medical services. J Gen Intern Med 1991 May-Jun; 6 (3): 241-6
62. Kane Jr FJ, Harper RG, Wittels E. Angina as a symptom of psychiatric illness. South Med J 1988 Nov; 81 (11): 1412-6
63. Wulsin LR, Arnold LM, Hillard JR. Axis I disorders in ER patients with atypical chest pain. Int J Psychiatry Med 1991; 21 (1): 37-46
64. Logue MB, Thomas AM, Barbee JG, et al. Generalized anxiety disorder patients seek evaluation for cardiological symptoms at the same frequency as patients with panic disorder. J Psychiatr Res 1993 Jan-Mar; 27 (1): 55-9
65. Walker EA, Roy-Byrne PP, Katon WJ. Irritable bowel syndrome and psychiatric illness. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147: 565-72
66. Lydiard RB, Fossey MD, Marsh W, et al. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Psychosmoatics 1993; 34: 229-34
67. Simon GE. Psychiatric disorder and functional somatic symptoms as predictors of health care use. Psychiatr Med. 1992; 10 (3): 49-59
68. Katerndahl DA, Realini JP. Use of health care services by persons with panic symptoms. Psychiatr Serv 1997 Aug; 48 (8): 1027-32
69. Katon W, Von Korff M, Lin E, et al. Distressed high utilizers of medical care: DSM-III-R diagnoses and treatment needs. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1990 Nov; 12 (6): 355-62
70. Simpson RJ, Kazmierczak T, Power KG, et al. Controlled comparison of the characteristics of patients with panic disorder. Br J Gen Pract 1994; 44: 352-6
71. Roy-Byrne PP, Stein MB, Russo J, et al. Panic disorder in the primary care setting: comorbidity, disability, service utilization, and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1999 Jul; 60 (7): 492-9
72. Ormel J, Koeter MW, Van Der Brink W, et al. Recognition, management, and course of anxiety and depression in clinical practice. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48: 700-6
73. Young AS, Klap R, Sherbourne CD, et al. The quality of care for depression and anxiety disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 55-61
74. Roy-Byrne P, Katon W, Cowley D, et al. A randomised effect trail of collaborative care for patients with panic disorder in the primary care. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 869-76
75. Roy-Byrne P, Wagner AW, Scraunfnagel BS. Understanding and treating panic disorder in the primary care setting. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 Suppl. 4: 16-22
76. Culpepper L. Identifying and treating panic disorder in primary care. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65 Suppl. 5: 19-23
77. Mojtabai R, Olfson M, Mechanic D. Perceived need and help-seeking in adults with mood, anxiety, or substance use disoders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002 Jan; 59 (1): 77-84
78. Roy-Byrne P, Cowley DS. Clinical approach to treatment-resistant panic disorder. In: Rosenbaum JF, Pollack MH, editors. Panic disorder and its treatment. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998: 205-26
79. Grilo CM, Money R, Barlow DH, et al. Pretreatment patient factors predicting attrition from a multicenter randomized controlled treatment study for panic disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1998 Nov-Dec; 39 (6): 323-32
80. Roy-Byrne PP, Craske MG, Stein MB, et al. A randomized effectiveness trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and medication for primary care panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005 Mar; 62 (3): 290-8
81. Roy-Byrne PP, Russo J, Cowley DS, et al. Unemployment and emergency room visits predict poor treatment outcome in primary care panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2003 Apr; 64 (4): 383-9
82. Broocks A, Bandelow B, Pekrun G, et al. Comparison of aerobic exercise, clomipramine, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998 May; 155 (5): 603-9
83. Gould RA, Otto MW, Pollack MH. A meta-analysis of treatment outcome for panic disorder. Clin Psychol Rev 1995; 15: 819-44
84. Clum GA, Clum GA, Surls R. A meta-analysis of treatments for panic disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993; 61: 317-26
85. Klein DF. Flawed meta-analyses compared psychotherapy with pharmacotherapy. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1204-11
86. Mitte K. A meta-analysis of the efficacy of psycho- and pharmacotherapy in panic disorder with and without agoraphobia. J Affect Disord 2005; 88: 27-45
87. Furukawa TA, Watanabe N. Psychotherapy plus antidepressant for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 188: 305-12
88. Noyes R, Clancey J, Coryell WH, et al. A withdrawal syndrome after abrupt discontinuation of alprazolam. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 114-6
89. Pecknold JC, Swinson RP, Kuch K, et al. Alprazolam in panic disorder and agoraphobia: results from a multicenter trial (III): discontinuation effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 429-36
90. Ballenger JC. Long-term pharmacologic treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52: 18-23
91. Ballenger JC. Medication discontinuation in panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53: 26-31
92. Pecknold JC. Discontinuation reactions to alprazolam in panic disorder. J Psychiatr Res 1993; 27: 155-70
93. Western D, Morrison K. A multidimensional meta-analysis of treatments for depression, panic, and generalized anxiety disorder: an empirical examination of the status of empirically-supported therapies. J Consult Clin Psychol 2001; 69: 875-99
94. Shear MK, Houck P, Greeno C, et al. Emotion-focused psychotherapy for patients with panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158 (12): 1993-8
95. Hofmann SG, Barlow DH, Papp LA, et al. Pretreatment attrition in comparative treatment outcome study on panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 45-7
96. Otto MW, Tuby KS, Gould RA, et al. An effect-size analysis of the relative efficacy and tolerability of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors for panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1989-92
97. Stuart GL, Treat TA, Wade WA. Effectiveness of an empirically-based treatment for panic disorder delivered in a service clinic setting: 1-year follow-up. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000; 68: 506-12
98. Beck AT, Sokol L, Clark DA, et al. A cross-over study of focused cognitive therapy for panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 778-83
99. Burns EL, Thorpe GJ, Cavallaro LA. Agoraphobia 8 years after behavioral treatment: a follow-up study with interview, self-report, and behavioral data. Behav Ther 1986; 17: 580-91
100. Emmelkamp PMG, Kuipers ACM. Agoraphobia: a follow-up study four years after treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1979; 134: 352-5
101. Fava G, Zielezny M, Savron G, et al. Long term effects of behavioral treatment for panic disorder with agoraphobia. Br J Psychiatry 1995; 166: 87-92
102. Hafner RJ. Fresh symptom emergence after intensive behaviour therapy. Br J Psychiatry 1976; 129: 378-83
103. Marks I. Phobic disorders four years after treatment: a prospective follow-up. Br J Psychiatry 1971; 118: 683-8
104. Munby M, Johnston DW. Agoraphobia: the long-term follow-up of behavioural treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1980; 137: 418-27
105. Nagy LM, Krystal JH, Charney DS. Long term outcome of panic disorder after short-term imipramine and behavioral group treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacology 1993; 13: 16-24
106. Goldberg C. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for panic: effectiveness and limitations. Psychiatr Q 1998; 69 (1): 23-44
107. O'Sullivan G, Marks IM. Long-term outcome of phobic and obessive-compulsive disorders after treatment. In: Noyes R, Burrows GD, Roth M, editors. Handbook of anxiety. Vol. 4. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1990: 87-108
108. Otto MW. Integrated treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58: 36-42
109. Van Balkom AJ, Bakker A, Spinhoven P, et al. A meta-analysis of the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: a comparison of psychopharmacological, cognitive-behavioral, and combination treatments. J Nerv Ment Dis 1997; 185 (8): 510-6
110. Curtis GC, Massana J, Udina C, et al. Maintenance drug therapy of panic disorder. J Psychiatr Res 1993; 27 Suppl. 1: 127-42
111. Brown TA, Barlow DH. Long-term outcome in cognitive-behavioral treatment of panic disorder: clinical predictors and alternative strategies for treatment. J Consult Clin Psychol 1995; 63: 754-65
112. Goisman RM, Warshaw MG, Keller MB. Psychosocial treatment prescriptions for generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social phobia, 1991-1996. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156 (11): 1819-21
113. Toni C, Perugi G, Frare F, et al. Spontaneous treatment discontinuation in panic disorder patients treated with antidepressants. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2004 Aug; 110 (2): 130-7
114. Kumar S, Oakley-Browne M. Panic disorder. Clin Evid 2003 Dec; 10: 1188-95
115. Otto MW, Tuby KS, Gould RA. An effect-size analysis of the relative efficacy and tolerability of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors for panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001 Dec; 158 (12): 1989-92
116. Bakker A, van Balkom AJ, Spinhoven P. SSRIs vs TCAs in the treatment of panic disorder: a meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2002 Sep; 106 (3): 163-7
117. Boyer W. Serotonin uptake inhibitors are superior to imipramine and alprazolam in alleviating panic attacks: a meta-analysis. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1995 Mar; 10 (1): 45-9
118. Ballenger JC, Wheadon DE, Steiner M, et al. Double-blind, f?exed-dose, placebo-controlled study of paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 36-42
119. Oehrberg S, Christiansen PE, Behnke K, et al. Paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 1995; 167: 374-9
120. Lecrubier Y, Judge R. Long-term evaluation of paroxetine, clomipramine and placebo in panic disorder. The Collaborative Paroxetine Panic Study Investigators. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997; 95: 153-60
121. Bakker A, van Dyck R, Spjnhoven P, et al. Paroxetine, clomipramine, and cognitive therapy in the treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 831-8
122. Judge R, Steiner M. The long-term efficacy of paroxetine in panic disorder [abstract]. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1996; 6: 207
123. Gorman J, Wolkow R. Sertraline as a treatment for panic disorder. Neuropsychopharrnacology 1994; 10: 117-75
124. DuBoff E, England D, Ferguson JM. Double-blind comparison in three fixed doses of sertraline and placebo in patients with panic disorder [abstract]. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1995; 5: 287
125. Wolkow R, Apter J, Clayton A. Double-blind flexible-dose study of sertraline and placebo in patients with panic disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1996; 6: 113-9
126. Londborg PD, Wolkow R, Smith WT, et al. Sertraline in the treatment of panic disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1998; 73: 54-60
127. Pohl RB, Wolkow RM, Clary CM. Sertraline in the treatment of panic disorder. a double-blind multicenter trial. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1189-95
128. Rapoport MH, Wolkow RM, Rubin A, et al. Sertraline treatment of panic disorder: results of a long term study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2001; 104: 289-98
129. Wade AG, Lepola U, Koponen J, et al. The effect of citalopram in panic disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1997; 170: 549-53
130. Lepola UM, Wade AG, Leinoncn EV, et al. A controlled, prospective, 1-year trial of citalopram in the treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 528-34
131. Leinonen E, Lepola U, Koponen H, et al. Citalopram controls phobic symptoms in patients with panic disorder: randomized controlled trial. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2000; 25: 24-32
132. Perna G, Bertani A, Caldirola D, et al. A comparison of citalopram and paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomized, single-blind study. Pharmacopsychiatry 2001 May; 34 (3): 85-90
133. Stahl SM, Gergel I, Li D. Escitalopram in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2003 Nov; 64 (11): 1322-7
134. den Boer JA, Westenberg HG. Serotonin function in panic disorder: a double blind placebo controlled study with fluvoxamine and ritanserin. Psychopharmacology 1990; 102: 85-94
135. Black DW, Wesner R, Gabel J. The abrupt discontinuation of fluvoxamine in patients with panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 544: 146-9
136. Hoehn-Saric R, McLeod DR, Hipsley PA. Effect of fluvoxamine on panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 13: 321-6
137. Nair NPV, Bakish D, Saxena B, et al. Comparison of fluvoxamine, imipramine, and placebo in the treatment of outpatients with panic disorder. Anxiety 1996; 2: 192-8
138. Gorman JM, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, et al. An open trial of fluoxetine in the treatment of panic attacks [published erratum appears in J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988 Feb; 8 (1): 13]. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987; 7: 329-32
139. Pecknold JC, Luthe L, Iny L, et al. Fluoxetine in panic disorder. pharmacologic and tritiated platelet imipramine and paroxetine binding study. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1995; 2: 193-8
140. Schneier FR, Liebowitz MR, Davies SO, et al. Fluoxetine in panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10: 119-21
141. Michelson D, Lydiard RB, Pollack MH, et al. Outcome assessment and clinical improvement in panic disorder: evidence from a randomized controlled trial of fluoxetine and placebo. The Fluoxetine Panic Disorder Study Group. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1570-7
142. Bradwejn J, Ahokas A, Stein DJ, et al. Venlafaxine extended-release capsules in panic disorder: flexible-dose, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 2005; 187: 352-9
143. Cohen SD, Monteiro W, Marks IM. Two-year follow-up of agoraphobics after exposure and imipramine. Br J Psychiatry 1984; 144: 276-81
144. Mavissakalian M, Michelson L. Two-year follow-up of exposure and imipramine treatment of agoraphobia. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143: 1106-12
145. Noyes R, Garvey M, Cook B. Follow-up study of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attacks treated with tricyclic antidepressants. J Affect Disord 1989; 16: 249-57
146. Zitrin CM, Klein DF, Woemer MG. Treatment of agoraphobia with group exposure in vivo and imipramine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980; 37: 63-72
147. Drug treatment of panic disorder: comparative efficacy of alprazolam, imipramine and placebo. Cross-National Collaborative Panic Study, second phase investigators. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 160: 191-202
148. Uhlenhuth EH, Matuzas W, Glass RM, et al. Response of panic disorder to fixed doses of alprazolam or imipramine. J Affect Disord 1989; 17: 261-70
149. Mavassakalian M, Perel J. Imipramine in the treatment of agoraphobia: dose response relationships. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 1032-6
150. Cassano GB, Toni C, Musetti L. Treatment of panic disorder. In: Biggio G, Concas A, Costa E, editors. GABAergic synaptic transmission. New York: Raven Press, 1992: 449-60
151. Andersch S, Rosenberg NK, Kullingsjo H, et al. Efficacy and safety of alprazolam, imipramine and placebo in treating panic disorder: a Scandinavian multicenter study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991; 365: 18-27
152. Mavissakalian MR, Perel JM. Imipramine dose-response relationship in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46: 127-31
153. Mavissakalian MR, Perel JM. Imipramine treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia: dose ranging and plasma level-response relationships. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 673-82
154. Maier W, Roth SM, Argyle N, et al. Avoidance behaviour: a predictor of the efficacy of pharmacotherapy in panic disorder? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1991; 241: 151-8
155. Mellergard M, Lorentzen K, Bech P, et al. A trend analysis of changes during treatment of panic disorder with alprazolam and imipramine. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1991; 365: 28-32
156. Modigh K, Westberg P, Eriksson E. Superiority of clomipramine over imipramine in the treatment of panic disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 12: 251-61
157. Cassano GB, Petracca A, Perugi G, et al. Clomipramine for panic disorder: I. The first 10 weeks of a long-term comparison with imipramine. J Affect Disord 1988; 14: 123-7
158. McTavish D, Benfield P. Clomipramine: an overview of its pharmacological properties and a review of its therapeutic use in obsessive compulsive disorder and panic disorder. Drugs 1990; 39 (1): 136-53
159. Sasson Y, Inacu I, Fux M, et al. A double-blind crossover comparison of clomipramine and desipramine in the treatment of panic disorder. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1999; 9 (3): 191-6
160. Lydiard RB, Morton WA, Emmanuel NP, et al. Preliminary report: placebo-controlled, double-blind study of the clinical and metabolic effects of desipramine in panic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1993; 29 (2): 183-8
161. Kalus O, Asnis GM, Rubinson E, et al. Desipramine treatment in panic disorder. J Affect Disord 1991; 21 (4): 239-44
162. Solyom L, Heseltine GFD, McClure DJ, et al. Interaction of phenelzine and exposure in phobias. Can Psychiatr J 1973; 18: 25-32
163. Tyrer P, Candy J, Kelly D. A study of the clinical effects of phenelzine and placebo in the treatment of phobic anxiety. Psychopharmacology 1973; 32: 237-54
164. Tyrer T. Clinical effects of abrupt withdrawal from tricyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors after long term treatment. J Affect Disord 1984; 6: 1-7
165. Tiller JW, Bouwer C, Behnke K. Moclobemide and fluoxetine for panic disorder. International Panic Disorder Study Group. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 249 Suppl. 1: S7-10
166. Krüger MB, Dahl AA. The efficacy and safety of moclobe-mide compared to clomipramine in the treatment of panic disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 249 Suppl. 1: S19-24
167. Uhlenhuth EH, Warner TD, Matuzas W. Interactive model of therapeutic response in panic disorder: moclobemide, a case in point. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 22 (3): 275-84
168. Loerch B, Graf-Morgenstern M, Hautzinger M, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of moclobemide, cognitive-behavioural therapy and their combination in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 174: 205-12
169. Schweizer E, Patterson W, Rickels K, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of a once-a-day, sustained-release preparation of alprazolam for the treatment of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150: 1210-5
170. Rosenbaum JF, Moroz G, Bowden CL. Clonazepam in the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: a dose response study of efficacy, safety, and discontinuance. The Clonazepam Panic Disorder Dose-Response Study Group. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17: 390-400
171. Tesar GE, Rosenbaum JF, Pollack MH, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of clonazepam and alprazolam for panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52: 69-76
172. Beauclair L, Fontaine R, Annable L, et al. Clonazepam in the treatment of panic-disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial investigating the correlation between clonazepam concentrations in plasma and clinical response. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 14: 111-8
173. Ballenger JC, Davidson JR, Lecrubier Y, et al. Consensus statement on panic disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59 Suppl. 8: 47-54
174. Coplan JD, Pine DS, Papp LA, et al. An algorithm-oriented treatment approach for panic disorder. Psychiatr Ann 1996; 264: 192-201
175. Noyes Jr R, Clancey J, Woodman C, et al. Environmental factors related to the outcome of panic disorder: a seven-year follow-up study. J Nerv Ment Disord 1993; 181: 529-38
176. Keller MB, Yonkers KA, Warshaw MG, et al. Remission and relapse in subjects with panic disorder and panic with agoraphobia: a prospective short-interval naturalistic follow-up. J Nerv Ment Disord 1993; 182: 290-6
177. Faravelli C, Paterniti S, Scarpato A. A 5-year prospective, naturalistic follow-up study of panic disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1995; 36: 271-7
178. Fava GA, Manganelli L. Subclinical symptoms of panic disorder. Psychother Psychosom 1999; 68: 281-9
179. Fava GA. The concept of recovery in affective disorders. Psychother Psychosom 1996; 65: 2-13
180. McKenzie LJ, Risch SC. Fibrocystic breast disease following treatment with SSRIs. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 1: 152-3
181. Holland RL. Fluvoxamine in panic disorder: after discontinuation? Neuropsychopharmacology 1994; 10: 102
182. Zajecka J, Tracy KA, Mitchell S. Discontinuation symptoms after treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors: a literature review. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58 (7): 291-7
183. Judge R, Parry MG, Quail D, et al. Discontinuation symptoms: comparison of brief interruption in fluoxetine and paroxetine treatment. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 17 (5): 217-25
184. Munjack DJ, Crocker B, Cabe D, et al. Alprazolam, propranolol and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia with panic attack. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1989; 9: 22-7
185. Lydiard RB, Lesser IM, Ballenger JC, et al. A fixed-dose study of alprazolam 2mg, alprazolam 6mg and placebo in panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992; 12: 96-103
186. Pollack MH, Tesar GE, Rosenbaum JF, et al. Clonazepam in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia: a one-year follow-up. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986; 6: 302-4
187. Pollack MH, Otto MW, Tesar GE, et al. Long-term outcome after acute treatment with alprazolam or clonazepam for panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 13: 257-63
188. Schweizer E, Rickels K, Weiss S, et al. Maintenance drug treatment or panic disorder: I. Results of a prospective, placebo-controlled, comparison of alprazolam and imipramine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 51-60
189. Worthington III JJ, Pollack MH, Otto MW, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled comparison of clonazepam and alprazolam for panic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1998; 34: 199-205
190. Noyes R, Garvey MJ, Cook BL, et al. Problems with tricyclic antidepressant use in patients with panic disorder or agoraphobia: results of a naturalistic follow-up study. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50: 163-9
191. Schweizer E, Pohl R, Balon R, et al. Lorazepam vs alprazolam in the treatment of panic disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry 1990; 23: 90-3
192. Charney DS, Woods SW. Benzodiazepine treatment of panic disorder. a comparison of alprazolam and lorazepam. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50: 418-23
193. Noyes Jr R, Burrows GD, Reich JH, et al. Diazepam versus alprazolam for the treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57: 349-55
194. Dunner DL, Ishiki D, Avery DH, et al. Effect of alprazolam and diazepam on anxiety and panic attacks in panic disorder: a controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 458-60
195. Pecknold J, Luthe L, Munjack D, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre study with alprazolam and extended-release
196. Barbone F, McMahon AD, Davey PG, et al. Association of road-traffic accidents with benzodiazepine use. Lancet 1998; 352: 1331-6
197. van Balkom AJ, Bakker A, Spinhoven P, et al. A meta-analysis of the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: a comparison of psychopharmacological, cognitive-behavioral, and combination treatments. J Nerv Ment Dis 1997; 185 (8): 510-6
198. Lydiard RB, Laraia MT, Ballenger JC, et al. Emergence of depressive symptoms in patients receiving alprazolam for panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144: 644-65
199. Cohen LS, Rosenbaum JF. Clonazepam: new uses and potential problems. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48: 50-5
200. Pollack MH, Tesar GE, Rosenbaum JF, et al. Clonazepam in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia: one year of follow-up. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986; 6: 302-4
201. Howell EF, Laraia MT, Ballenger JC, et al. Lorazepam treatment of panic disorder [presented at the new research session]. 140th Annual Meeting of the American Psychiatric Association; 1987 May 7-14; Chicago (IL)
202. Fux M, Taub M, Zohar J. Emergence of depressive symptoms during treatment for panic disorder with specific 5-hydroxy-tryptophan reuptake inhibitors. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1993; 88: 235-7
203. Aronson TA. Treatment-emergent depression with antidepressants in panic disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1989; 1 (2): 267-71
204. Hallfors DD, Saxe L. The dependence potential of short half-life benzodiazepines: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 1993; 83: 1300-1304
205. Salzman C. Benzodiazepine treatment of panic and agoraphobic symptoms: use, dependence, toxicity, abuse. J Psychiatr Res 1993; 27: 97-110
206. Goddard AW, Brouette T, Almai A, et al. Early coadministration of clonazepam with sertraline for panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001; 58: 681-6
207. Pollack MH, Simon NH, Worthington JJ, et al. Combined paroxetine and clonazepam treatment strategies compared to paroxetine monotherapy for panic disorder. J Psychopharmacol 2003; 17: 276-82
208. Mavissakalian MR, Perel JM. Duration of imipramine therapy and relapse in panic disorder with agoraphobia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 22: 294-9
209. Ballenger JC. Medication discontinuation in panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53: 26-31
210. Pollack MH, Marzol PC. Panic: course, complications, and treatment of panic disorder. J Psychopharmacol 2000; 14 (2 Suppl. 1): S25-30
211. O'Rourke D, Fahy TJ, Brophy J, et al. The Galway Study of panic disorder: III. Outcome at 5 to 6 years. Br J Psychiatry 1996; 168: 462-9
212. Michelson D, Lydiard RB, Pollack MH, et al. Outcome assessment and clinical improvement in panic disorder: evidence from a randomized controlled trial of fluoxetine and placebo. The Fluoxetine Panic Disorder Study Group. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1570-7
213. Mavissakalian MR, Perel JM. Clinical experiments in maintenance and discontinuation of imipramine therapy in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992; 49: 318-23
214. Rickels K, Schweizer E. Panic disorder: long-term pharmacotherapy and discontinuation. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18 Suppl. 2: S12-18
215. Katon W, Vitaliano PP, Anderson K, et al. Panic disorder: residual symptoms after the acute attacks abate. Compr Psychiatry 1987; 28: 151-8
216. Fava GA, Rafanelli C, Ottolini F, et al. Psychological well-being and residual symptoms in remitted patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. J Affect Disord 2001; 65: 185-90
217. Katschnig H, Amering M, Stolk JM, et al. Predictors of quality of life in a long-term follow-up study in panic disorder patients after a clinical drug trial. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996; 32: 149-55
218. Mark IM, Swinson RP, Basoglu M, et al. Alprazolam and exposure alone and combined in panic disorder with agoraphobia: a controlled study in London and Toronto. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 62: 776-87
219. Roy-Byrne PP, Craske MG, Stein MB, et al. A randomized effectiveness trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and medication for primary care panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62 (3): 290-8
220. Bakker A, van Balkom AJ, Spinhoven P, et al. Follow-up on the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: a quantitative review. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998; 186: 414-9
221. Barlow DH, Gorman JM, Shear MK, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy, imipramine, or their combination for panic disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000; 283: 2529-36
222. Otto MW, Deveney C. Cogntive-behavioral therapy and the treatment of panic disorder: efficacy and strategies. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 Suppl. 4: 28-32