Women drug users in North Cumbria: What influences initiation into heroin in this non-urban setting?

Sociology of Health and Illness

Volumn 29, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 633-655

  Payne, Jennifer ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Heroin; Influence; Initiation; Non urban; Women

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; EMOTION; EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR; FEMALE; HEROIN DEPENDENCE; HUMAN; INTERVIEW; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RURAL POPULATION; SELF CONCEPT; UNITED KINGDOM;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; EMOTIONS; ENGLAND; EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR; FEMALE; HEROIN DEPENDENCE; HUMANS; INTERVIEWS; MALE; RURAL POPULATION; SELF CONCEPT; WOMEN;

EID: 34547889139     PISSN: 01419889     EISSN: 14679566     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9566.2007.01016.x     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. ACMD (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs 1998) Drug Misuse and the Environment. London : Home Office.
2. ACMD (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs 2003) Hidden Harm: Responding to the needs of children of problem drug users. London : Home Office.
3. Aldridge, J., Parker, H. Measham, F. (1999) Drug trying and drug use across adolescence: a longitudinal study of young people's drug taking in two regions of Northern England, Research Paper 1. London : Home Office.
4. Almog, Y.J., Anglin, M.D. Fisher, D.G. (1993) Alcohol and heroin use patterns of narcotic addicts: gender and ethnic differences, American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 19, 2, 219 38.
5. Anglin, D., Hser, Y. McGothlin, W. (1987) Sex differences in addict careers. 2: Becoming addicted, American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 13, 59 71.
6. Aust, R. Condon, J. (2003) Geographical Variations in Drug Use: Key Findings from the British Crime Survey. Home Office Statistical Bulletin 15/03. London : Home Office.
7. Balding, J. (2004) Young People in Cumbria in 2003. Exeter : Schools Health Education Unit.
8. Barnard, M.A. (1993) Needle-sharing in context: patterns of sharing among men and women injectors and HIV risks, Addiction, 88, 6, 805 12.
9. Bate, E. (2005) An investigation into the health and social needs of women who use illicit drugs, Journal of Community Nursing, 19, 4, 24 8.
10. Becker, H. (1953) Becoming a marijuana user, American Journal of Sociology, 59, 235 42.
11. Becker, H. (1963) Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York : Free Press.
12. Becker, J. Duffy, C. (2002) Women drug users and drugs service provision: service-level responses to engagement and retention. London : Home Office.
13. Bellis, M.A., Beynon, C., Millar, T., Ashton, J.R., Thomson, T., Djuretic, T. Taylor, A. (2001) Unexplained illness and deaths among injecting drug users in England: a case control study using regional drug misuse databases, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 843 4.
14. Bennett, L. Lawson, M. (1994) Barriers to cooperation between domestic violence and substance abuse programs, Families in Society, 75, 5, 277 86.
15. Biernacki, P. Waldorf, G. (1981) Snowball sampling: problems and techniques of chain referral sampling, Sociological Methods and Research, 10, 2, 141 63.
16. Bloor, M. (1995) The Sociology of HIV Transmission. London : Sage.
17. Bloor, M., McKeganey, N., Finlay, A. Barnard, M. (1992) The inappropriateness of psycho-social models of risk behaviour to understanding HIV-related risk behaviour among Glasgow male prostitutes, AIDS Care, 4, 2, 131 7.
18. Blume, S.B. (1990) Chemical dependency in women: important issues, American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 16, 297 307.
19. Bourgois, P., Lettiere, M. Quesada, J. (1997) Social misery and the sanctions of substance abuse: confronting HIV risk among homeless heroin addicts in San Francisco, Social Problems, 44, 2, 155 73.
20. Boyd, S. (1999) Mothers and Illicit Drugs: Transcending the Myths. Canada : University of Toronto Press.
21. Broom, D. Stevens, A. (1991) Doubly deviant: women using alcohol and other drugs, International Journal of Drug Policy, 2, 4, 25 7.
22. Brown, G. Harris, T. (1978) The Social Origins of Depression. London : Tavistock.
23. Bury, J. (1992) Education and the Prevention of HIV infection. In Bury, J., Morrison, V. McLachlan, S. (eds) Working with Women and AIDS: Medical, Social and Counselling Issues. London : Tavistock Routledge.
24. Campbell, J.C. (2002) Health consequences of intimate partner violence, Lancet, 359, 1331 6.
25. Carstairs, V. Morris, R. (1991) Deprivation and Health in Scotland. Aberdeen : Aberdeen University Press.
26. Chivite-Matthews, N., Richardson, A., O'Shea, J. et al. (2005) Drug Misuse Declared: Findings from the 2003/04 British Crime Survey. Home Office Statistical Bulletin. London : Home Office.
27. Coleman, L. Cater, S. (2005) Underage 'risky' drinking: Motivations and outcomes. York : Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
28. Copeland, J. Hall, A. (1992) A comparison of women seeking drug and alcohol treatment in a specialist women's and two mixed sex treatment services, British Journal of Addiction, 87, 9, 1293 302.
29. Cowan, P.C. Cowan, P.A. (1995) Interventions to ease the transition to motherhood: Why are they needed and what can they do? Family Relations, 44, 4, 412 23.
30. Crossan, E. Amos, A. (1994) Under a Cloud: Women, Low Income and Smoking. Edinburgh : Health Education Board for Scotland.
31. Cumbria Drug Action Team (2004) Drugs Audit 2004, Penrith : Cumbria DAT.
32. Cuskey, W.R. (1982) Female addiction: a review of the literature, Journal of Addiction and Health. 3, 1, 3 33.
33. Dale-Perera, A. (1998) Education, Education, Education, Druglink (May/June 13, 3, 6.
34. Davis, D.R. Dinitto, D.M. (1996) Gender differences in social and psychological problems of substance abusers: a comparison to non-substance abusers, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 28, 2, 135 45.
35. DOH (Department of Health 2000) Statistical Bulletin: statistics from the Regional Drug Misuse databases for six months ending March 2000. London : Department of Health.
36. DOH (Department of Health 2006) Responding to domestic abuse: a resource manual for health professional. London : Department of Health.
37. Des Jarlais, D., Friedman, S., Perlis, T., Chapman, T.F., Sotheran, J.L., Paone, D., Monterosso, E. Neaigus, A. (1999) Risk behaviours and HIV infection among new drug injectors in the era of AIDS in New York City, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 20, 1, 67 72.
38. Dickerson, J.W.T. Stimson, G. (1995) Health in the Inner City: Drugs in the City. London : Royal Society of Health.
39. Dobash, R. Dobash, R. (1980) Violence against Wives: A case against the patriarchy. London : Open Books.
40. Douglas, M. (1986) Risk Acceptability According to the Social Sciences. London : Routledge and Kegan Paul.
41. Doyal, L., Payne, S. Cameron, A. (2003) Promoting Gender equality in Health. A report to The Equal Opportunities Commission. Accessed online at http://www.eoc.org.uk on 26 April 2005.
42. EMCDDA (European Monitoring Centre on DrugsDrug Addiction 2005) Differences in Patterns of drug use between women and men, accessed online at http://www.emcdda.eu.int on 26 April 2005.
43. Ettorre, E. (1989) Women, substance abuse and self-help. In MacGregor, S. (ed.) Drugs and British Society: Responses to a Social Problem in the Eighties. London : Routledge.
44. Ettorre, E. (1992) Women and Substance Use. London : Macmillan.
45. Ettorre, E. (1994) Substance use and women's health. In Wilkinson, S. Kitzinger, C. (eds) Women and Health: Feminist Perspectives. London : Taylor and Francis.
46. Ettorre, E. (2004) Revisioning women and drug use: gender sensitivity, embodiment and reducing harm, International Journal of Drug Policy, 15, 5 6, 327 35.
47. Fennema, J.S., Van Ameijden, E.J. Van den Hoek, A. Coutinho, R.A. (1997) Young and recent-onset drug users are at high risk for HIV, Addiction, 92, 11, 1457 66.
48. Finney, A. (2004) Alcohol and intimate partner violence: key findings from the research. Findings 215. London : Home Office Research Development and Statistics Directorate.
49. Flood-Page, C. Taylor, J. (eds) (2003) Crime in England and Wales 2001/2002: Supplementary volume. London : Home Office.
50. Forsyth, A. Barnard, M. (1999) Contrasting levels of adolescent drug use between adjacent urban and rural communities in Scotland, Addiction, 94, 11, 1707 18.
51. Fraser, J (1997) Methadone clinic culture: the everyday realities of female methadone clinics, Qualitative Health Research, 7, 1, 121 39.
52. Frischer, M. (1995) Mapping the nature and extent of drug use in a community: the Glasgow experience. In Dickerson, J.W.T. Stimson, G. (eds) Health in the Inner City: Drugs in the City. London : Royal Society of Health.
53. Garfein. R., Vlahov, D., Galia, N., Doherty, M.C. Nelson, K.E. (1996) Viral infections in short-term injection drug users: The prevalence of hepatitis C, hepatitis B human T-lymphocyte viruses, American Journal of Public Health, 86, 5, 655 61.
54. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self Identity: self and society in the late modern age. Cambridge : Polity Press.
55. Giggs, J., Bean, P., Whynes, D. Wilkinson, C. (1989) Class A drug users: prevalence and characteristics in Greater Nottingham, British Journal of Addiction, 84, 12 : 1473 80.
56. Gilchrist, E. (2003) Domestic Violence Offenders: Characteristics and Offending-related Needs, Findings 217. London : Home Office.
57. Gilvarry, E. (1998) Young drug users: early intervention, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 5, 3, 281 92.
58. Goffman, E. (1963) Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, N.J Prentice Hall.
59. th edition). Aldershot : Ashgate Publishing.
60. Gossop, M., Griffiths, P. Strang, J. (1994) Sex differences in patterns of drug-taking behaviour - a study at a London community drug team, British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 101 4.
61. Goulden, C. Sondhi, A. (2001) At the margins: drug use by vulnerable young people in the 1998/1999 Youth Lifestyles Survey, Home Office Research Series 228. London : Home Office.
62. Graham, H. (1984) Women, Health and the Family. Brighton : Wheatsheaf.
63. Griffin-Shelley, E. (1986) Sex roles in addiction: defense or deficit? International Journal of Addiction, 21, 12, 1307 12.
64. Hall, D. Hall, I. (1996) Practical Social Research. London : Macmillan.
65. Health Advisory Service (1996) Children and Young People's Substance Misuse Services. London : HMSO.
66. Henderson, S. (1993) Luvdup and de-elited: responses to drug use in the second decade. In Aggleton, P., Davies, P. Hart, G. (eds) AIDS: Facing the Second Decade. London : Falmer Press.
67. Henderson, S. (1997) Ecstasy: Case Unsolved. London : Pandora.
68. Henderson, S. (1999) Drugs and Culture: the question of gender. In South, N. (ed.) Drugs, Cultures, Controls and Everyday Life. London : Sage.
69. Hien, D. Scheier, J. (1996) Trauma and short-term outcome for women in detoxification, Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 13, 3, 227 31.
70. Hoff, L.A. (1990) Battered Women as Survivors. London : Routledge.
71. Hollway, W. (1989) Subjectivity and Method in Psychology: Gender, Meaning and Science. London : Sage.
72. Holsten, F. (1985) The female drug abuser: has she a shorter way out? Journal of Drug Issues, 15, 3, 383 92.
73. Hser, Y., Anglin, M.D. McGlothlin, W.H. (1987) Sex differences in addict careers: 1. Initiation of use, American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 13, 1, 33 57.
74. Hsu, L.N. DuGuerny, J. (1995) Towards a gender-sensitive approach to drug demand reduction: a process within the United Nations system, Bulletin on Narcotics: Focal Point on Women, 47, 1 2, 1 14.
75. Huizink, A.C., Ferdinand, R.F., Van den Erde, J. Verhulst, F.C. (2006) Symptoms of anxiety and depression in childhood and use of MDMA: prospective, population-based study, British Medical Journal, 332, 7545, 825 8.
76. Hunt, N., Stillwell, G., Taylor, C. Griffiths, P. (1998) Evaluation of a brief intervention to prevent initiation into injecting, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 5, 2, 185 94.
77. Jacobs, J. (1998) The links between substance misuse and domestic violence: current knowledge and debates. London : Alcohol Concern.
78. Jacobs, J. Tulloch, J. (1997) Domestic Violence and Substance Misuse: a survey of research and local practice. Brighton : Brighton Safer Cities.
79. Johnston, L., MacDonald, R., Mason, P., Ridley, L. Webster, C. (2000) Snakes and Ladders: Young People, Transitions and Social Exclusion. York : Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
80. Jones, L., Hughes, M. Unterstaller, U. (2001) Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in victims of domestic violence: a review of research, Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 2, 2, 99 119.
81. Kendler, K.S., Bulik, C.M., Silberg, J., Hettema, J.M., Myers, J. Prescott, C.A. (2000) Childhood sexual abuse and adult psychiatric and substance use disorders in women: an epidemiological and co-twin control analysis, Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 10, 953 9.
82. Kirkwood, C. (1993) Leaving abusive partners: from the scars of survival to the wisdom for change. London : Sage Publications.
83. Klee, H. (1993) HIV Risks for women drug injectors: heroin and amphetamine users compared, Addiction, 88, 8, 1055 62.
84. Klee, H. (1996) Women drug users and their partners. In Sherr, L., Hankins, C. Bennett, L. (eds) AIDS as a Gender Issue: Psychosocial Perspectives. London : Taylor and Francis.
85. Klee, H. (2002) Informal support: partners and mums. In Klee, H., Jackson, M. Lewis, S. (eds) Drug Misuse and Motherhood. London and New York : Routledge.
86. Klee, H., Faugier, J., Hayes, C., Boulton, T. Morris, J. (1990) Factors associated with risk behaviour among IV drug users, AIDS Care, 2, 133 45.
87. Klee, H., Morris, J., Ruben, S. Prinjha, N. (1993) Poly-drug misuse: health risks and implications for HIV transmission. Final Report to the UK Department of Health. Manchester : Manchester Metropolitan University, SRHSA.
88. Kline, A. (1996) Pathways into drug user treatment: the influence of gender and racial/ethnic identity, Substance Use and Misuse, 31, 3, 323 42.
89. Lee, R.M. (1993) Doing Research on Sensitive Topics. London : Sage.
90. Lemert, E.M. (1951) Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behaviour. New York and London : McGraw-Hill.
91. Lex, B.W. (1991) Gender differences and substance abuse. In Mello, N.K. (ed.) Advances in Substance Abuse Behavioural and Biological Research. London : Jessica Kingsley.
92. nd edition. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
93. Lloyd, C. (1998) Risk factors for problem drug use: identifying vulnerable groups, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 5, 3, 217 32.
94. Lynskey, M., Fergusson, D. Horwood, L. (1998) The origins of the correlations between tobacco, alcohol and cannabis use during adolescence, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 995 1007.
95. McIntosh, J. McKeganey, N. (2000) Addicts' narratives of recovery from drug use: constructing a non-addict identity, Social Science and Medicine, 50, 10, 1501 10.
96. McIntosh, J., MacDonald, F. McKeganey, N. (2005) Pre-teenage children's strategies for avoiding situations in which they may be exposed to drugs, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 16, 37 45.
97. McKeganey, N. (1995) Quantitative and qualitative research in addictions: an unhelpful divide, Addiction, 90, 6, 749 51.
98. McKeganey, N. Barnard, M. (1992) AIDS, Drugs and Sexual Risk: Lives in the Balance. Buckingham : Open University Press.
99. McKeganey, N. Norrie, J. (1999) Pre-teen Drug Users in Scotland, Addiction Research, 7, 6, 493 507.
100. McKeganey, N., Neale, J. Robertson, M. (2005) Physical and sexual abuse among drug users contacting drug treatment services in Scotland, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 12, 3, 223 32.
101. Maher, L. (1997) Sexed Work: Gender, Race and Resistance in a Brooklyn Drugs Market. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
102. Measham, F. (2002) Doing gender - 'doing drugs': conceptualising the gendering of drugs cultures, Contemporary Drug Problems, 29, 2, 335 73.
103. Melrose, M. Brodie, I. (2002) Vulnerable young people and their vulnerability to drug misuse. In Evans, K. Alade, S. (eds), Vulnerable young people and drugs: opportunities to tackle inequalities, Research to Practice 2. London : Drugscope.
104. Miller, B.A., Downs, W.R. Testa, M. (1993) Inter-relationships between victimisation experiences and women's alcohol/drug use, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement 11, 109 17.
105. Monaghan, L.F. (2001) Bodybuilding, Drugs and Risk. London : Routledge.
106. Mondanaro, J. (1989) Chemically Dependent Women: Assessment and Treatment. Lexington : Lexington Books.
107. Mort, M., Convery, I., Baxter, J. Bailey, C. (2005) Psychosocial effects of the 2001 UK foot and mouth disease epidemic in a rural population: qualitative diary-based study, British Medical Journal, 331, 7527, 1234 7.
108. Mullender, A. (1996) Rethinking Domestic Violence: the Social Work and Probation Response. London : Routledge.
109. National Institute for HealthClinical Excellence (NICE 2005) Guidance on Depression in Young People, accessed on 26.10.2005 at http://www.nice.org.uk/ page.aspx?o=273073
110. National Treatment Agency for Substance Misuse (2002) Models of Care for the Treatment of Drug Misusers. London : NTA.
111. Neale, J. (2004) Gender and illicit drug use, British Journal of Social Work, 34, 6, 851 70.
112. Nurco, D., Wegner, N. Stephenson, P. (1982) Female narcotic addicts: changing profiles, Journal of Addiction and Health: Focus on Women, 2, 62 105.
113. ODPM (2004) The English Indices of Deprivation 2004 (revised). Report to the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. Accessed online at http://www.odpm.gov. uk on 26 April 2005.
114. Office for National Statistics (2001) Census Data, London : ONS.
115. O'Hara, M.W. Swain, A.M. (1996) Rates and risk of post-partum depression - a meta-analysis, International Review of Psychiatry, 8, 1, 37 54.
116. O'Malley, P. Valverde, M. (2004) Pleasure, freedom and drugs: the uses of pleasure in liberal governance of drug and alcohol consumption, Sociology, 38, 1, 25 42.
117. Paone, D., Chavkin, W., Willets, I., Freimann, P. Des Jarlais, D. (1992) The impact of sexual abuse: implications for drug treatment, Journal of Women's Health, 1, 2, 149 53.
118. Parker, H., Bakx, K. Newcombe, R. (1988) Living with Heroin: the Impact of a Drugs 'Epidemic' on an English Community. Milton Keynes : Open University Press.
119. Parker H., Measham, F. Aldridge, E.J. (1995) Drugs Futures: Changing Patterns of Drug Use amongst English Youth, Research Monograph 7. London : ISDD.
120. Parker, H., Aldridge, J. Measham, F. (1998) Illegal leisure: the Normalisation of Adolescent Recreational Drug Use. London : Routledge.
121. Payne, S. (1991) Women, Health and Poverty: an Introduction. Hemel Hempstead : Harvester Wheatsheaf.
122. Pettiway, L.E. (1997) ' Workin' it': Women Living through Drugs and Crime. Philadelphia : Temple University Press.
123. Philip, K., Bruce, L. Shucksmith, J. (1997) 'Doubly deviant?' Women drug injectors and their use of drug problem services. In Aggleton, P., Hart, G. Davies, P. (eds) AIDS: Activism and Alliances. London : Taylor and Francis.
124. Phoenix, A. (1991) Mothers under twenty: insider and outsider views. In Phoenix, A., Woollett, A. Lloyd, E. (eds) Motherhood, meanings, practices and ideologies. London : Sage.
125. Powis, B., Griffiths, P., Gossop, M. Strang, J. (1996) The differences between male and female drug users: community samples of heroin and cocaine users compared, Substance Use and Misuse, 31, 5, 529 43.
126. Powis, B., Griffiths, P., Gossop, M., Lloyd, C. Strang, J. (1998) Drug use and offending behaviour among young people excluded from school, Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 5, 3, 245 56.
127. Raine, P. (2001) Women's Perspectives on Drugs and Alcohol: the Vicious Circle. Aldershot : Ashgate.
128. Ravndal, E. Vaglum, P. (1994) Treatment of female addicts: the importance of relationships in parents, partners and peers for the outcome, International Journal of the Addictions, 29, 115 25.
129. Reed, B.G. (1985) Drug misuse and dependency in women: the meanings and implications of being considered a special population or minority group, International Journal of the Addictions, 20, 1, 13 62.
130. Rhodes, T. (1997) Risk theory in epidemic times: sex, drugs and the social organisation of risk behaviour, Sociology of Health and Illness, 19, 2, 208 27.
131. Rhodes, T. Quirk, A. (1998) Drug-users sexual relationships and the social organisation of risk: the sexual relationship as a site of risk management, Social Science and Medicine, 46, 2, 157 69.
132. Ribbens-McCarthy, J. Jessop, J. (2005) The impact of bereavement and loss on young people. Joseph Rowntree Foundation Findings accessed on 15 June 2005 at http://www.jrf.org.uk
133. Robbins, C. (1989) Sex differences in psychosocial consequences of alcohol abuse, Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 30, 1, 117 30.
134. Root, M. (1989) Treatment failures: the role of sexual victimisation in women's addictive behaviour, American Journal of Orthopsychiatrists, 59, 4, 542 9.
135. Rosenbaum, M. (1981) Women on Heroin. Brunswick, N.J Rutgers University Press.
136. Rosenbaum, M. Murphy, S. (1990) Women and addiction: process, treatment and outcomes. In Lambert, L. (ed.) The Collection of Data from Hidden Populations, NIDA Research Monograph 98. US : Department of Health and Human Sciences.
137. Roth, P. (1991) Alcohol and Drugs are Women's Issues, Volume 1. Metuchen New Jersey and London : Women's Action Alliance.
138. Rural Regeneration Cumbria (2002) Cumbria Rural Action Zone Strategy accessed online on 26 April 2005 at http://www.ruralcumbria.co.uk
139. Russell, S. Wilsnack, S. (1991) Adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. In P. Roth. Alcohol and Drugs are Women's Issues, Volume 1. Metuchen New Jersey : Women's Action Alliance.
140. Sargent, C. (1992) Women, Drugs and Policy in Sydney, London and Amsterdam: a feminist interpretation. Aldershot : Avebury.
141. Schools Health Education Unit (SHEU 2005) Drug use in Cumbria: are Smoking, Drinking and Experimentation with Illegal Drugs Linked? Exeter : SHEU.
142. Schutz, A. (1970) Reflections on the Problem of Relevance. New Haven and London : Yale University Press.
143. Small, R., Brown, S., Lumley, J. Astbury, J. (1994) Missing voices: what women say and do about their depression after childbirth, Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 12, 2, 89 104.
144. South, N. (1999) Debating drugs and everyday life: normalisation, prohibition and otherness. In South, N. (ed.) Drugs: Cultures, Controls and Everyday Life. London : Sage.
145. Stanko, E.A. (1985) Intimate Intrusions: Women's experiences of Male Violence. London : Routledge and Kegan Paul.
146. Stella Project (2004) Domestic Violence, Drugs and Alcohol: Good Practice Guidelines. London : The Stella Project.
147. Stewart, S.H., Pihl, R.O., Conrod, P.J. Dongier, M. (1998) Functional associations among trauma, PTSD and substance-related disorders, Addictive Behaviours, 23, 6, 797 812.
148. Suffet, F. Brotman, R. (1976) Female drug use: some observations, International Journal of Addiction, 11, 1, 19 33.
149. Sumnall, H., McGrath, Y., McVeigh, J., Burrell, K. Bellis, M. (2006) Drug Use Prevention among Young People: Evidence into Practice Briefing, February 2006 National Collaborating Centre for Drug Prevention on behalf of Health Development Agency, (now National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence London : NICE.
150. Swift, W., Copeland, J. Hall, W. (1996) Characteristics of women with alcohol and other drug problems: findings of an Australian national survey, Addiction, 91, 8, 1141 50.
151. Taket, A.R., Nurse, J., Smith, K. et al. (2003) Routinely screening women about domestic violence in the health setting, British Medical Journal, 327, 7416, 673 6.
152. Taylor, A. (1993) Women Drug Users: an ethnography of a female injecting population. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
153. Timimi, S. (2004) Rethinking childhood depression, British Medical Journal, 329, 7479, 1394 6.
154. Underhill, B.L. (1986) Issues relevant to aftercare programs for women, Alcohol, Health and Research World, 11, 46 7.
155. Vogt, I. (1998) Gender and drug treatment systems. In Klingemann, H. Hunt, G. (eds) Drug Treatment Systems in an International Perspective: Drugs, Demons and Delinquents. London : Sage.
156. Wight, D. (1999) Cultural factors in young heterosexual men's perception of HIV risk, Sociology of Health and Illness 21, 6, 735 58.
157. Women's Aid (2003) What is Domestic Violence? Accessed online on 16 March 2005 at http://www.womensaid.org.uk
158. World Health Organisation (1997) Violence against Women: a Health Priority Issue, accessed online on 28 December 2005 at http://www.who.int/ gender/violence/vawpriority/en/
159. Wright, S. (2002) Women's use of drugs: gender-specific factors. In Klee, H., Jackson, M. Lewis, S. (eds) Drug Misuse and Motherhood. London and New York : Routledge.
160. Young, R. (2002) From War to Work: Drug Treatment, Social Exclusion and Enterprise. London : The Foreign Policy Centre.
161. Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA 2002) Beyond the Bus Shelter: Young Women's Choices and Challenges in Rural Areas. Oxford : YWCA.
162. Zubretsky, T. (2002) Promising directions for helping chemically involved battered women get safe and sober. In Roberts, A. (ed Handbook of Domestic Violence Intervention Strategies: Policies, Programs and Legal Remedies. Oxford : Oxford University Press.