"Overrun with free negroes": Emancipation and wartime migration in the upper midwest

Civil War History

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 145-174

  Schwalm, Leslie A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34547760495     PISSN: 00098078     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (195)

1. Iowa City Republican, Apr. 1, 8, 1863
2. Muscatine (Iowa) Courier, Oct. 2, 1862
3. Nina Silber and Mary Beth Sievens, eds., Yankee Correspondence: Civil War Letters between New England Soldiers and the Home Front (Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, 1996), 74
4. Keokuk (Iowa) Daily Constitution, Sept. 15, 1862
5. Floyd J. Miller, The Search for a Black Nationality: Black Emigration and Colonization 1783-1863 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1975)
6. David W. Blight, Frederick Douglass' Civil War: Keeping Faith in Jubilee (Baton Rouge: Lousiana State Univ. Press, 1989)
7. Independent (New York), Aug. 21, 1862
8. Harper's Weekly, Apr. 5, 19, June 28, Sept. 6, 1862. On the Lincoln administration's advocacy for colonization, see Blight, Frederick Douglass' Civil War, 134-47
9. Robert Hamilton, quoted in Weekly Anglo-African (New York), Sept. 26, 1863
10. See also Phillip Shaw Paludan, "A People's Contest": The Union and the Civil War, 1861-1865 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988), 220-21
11. and James M. McPherson, The Struggle for Equality: Abolitionists and the Negro in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1964), 235-37
12. Ira Berlin, Wayne Durrill, Steven F. Miller, Leslie S. Rowland, and Leslie Schwalm, "'To Canvass the Nation': The War for Union Becomes a War for Freedom," Prologue 20, no. 4 (1988): 235-36
13. Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Univ. of Indiana Press, 1998), 151
14. Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990)
15. Jacqueline Jones, American Work: Four Centuries of Black and White Labor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 290-92
16. Emma Lou Thornbrough, The Negro in Indiana before 1900: A Study of a Minority (1957; reprint, Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1993), 185-92
17. Jacque Voegeli, Free but Not Equal: The Midwest and the Negro during the Civil War (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1967), 34-35
18. and Williston H. Lofton, "Northern Labor and the Negro during the Civil War," Journal of Negro History 34 (July 1949): 251-73
19. and James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1997)
20. Michael J. McManus, Political Abolitionism in Wisconsin, 1840-1861 (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1998), 34-35
21. Gary Libman, "Minnesota and the Struggle for Black Suffrage, 1849-1870, A Study in Party Motivation" (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1972), 11-14
22. Earl Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota (Minneapolis: T. S. Denison, 1961), 27, 34-35, 44
23. Robert R. Dykstra, Bright Radical Star: Black Freedom and White Supremacy on the Hawkeye Frontier (Ames: Iowa State Univ. Press, 1997), 108-13
24. St. Paul Daily Press, Feb. 10, 1863
25. State of Wisconsin, Journal of the Senate, 1863 Annual Session (Madison: S. D. Carpenter, 1863), 633-37
26. and Journal of the Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, 1863 Annual Session (Madison: S. D. Carpenter, 1863), 287, 529-31
27. On slaves in the antebellum Midwest, see John Carl Parish, John Chambers (Iowa City: State Historical Society of Iowa, 1909), 113, 118, 122, 125, 139, 226, 240
28. Edward Stiles, Recollections and Sketches of Notable Lawyers and Public Men of Early Iowa (Des Moines: Homestead, 1916), 10, 14
29. Herbert M. Hoke, "Negroes in Iowa: Evidence of Negroes Here in the Early Days," May 7, 1940, MsC295, Federal Writers Project, Iowa, University of Iowa Special Collections, Iowa City; George Frazee, "The Iowa Fugitive Slave Case," Annals of Iowa (Apr. 1899): 118-37
30. "A Slave Owner in Iowa," The Palimpsest 22 (Nov. 1941): 344-45
31. Olive Cole Smith, Mt. Pleasant Recalls Some of the Happenings of Her First Hundred Years (1942; reprint, Mt. Pleasant, Iowa: n.p., 1967), 15-16
32. Davenport (Iowa) Gazette, Aug. 5, 1865 (noting a district court suit by a former slave woman held by her owners to uncompensated labor for thirteen years while a resident of Iowa)
33. Nathan Isabell Diary, June 8, 1848, D8 Folder 1, Iowa State Historical Society, Iowa City (hereafter ISHS); History of Johnson County, Iowa (Iowa City: n.p., 1882), 463
34. Charles Ray Aurner, Leading Events in Johnson County Iowa History (Cedar Rapids: Western Historical Press, 1912), 463-64
35. Jack Hardin Gillihan, Memoir and Clippings, n.p., Nodaway Valley Museum Underground Railway Binder, and BH 128, Nodaway Valley Museum Black History Binder, both in Nodaway Valley Museum, Clarinda, Iowa
36. Hiram F. Stevens, History of the Bench and Bar of Minnesota (Minneapolis: Legal Publishing and Engraving Company, 1904), 1:30-36
37. Zachary Cooper, Black Settlers in Rural Wisconsin (Madison: Wisconsin State Historical Society, 1977), 3-4
38. and John Nelson Davidson, Negro Slavery in Wisconsin and the Underground Railroad (Milwaukee: Parkman Club Publications, 1897). On slaves held by U.S. Army officers, see Lea Vander Velde and Sandhya Subramanian, "Mrs. Dred Scott," Yale Law Journal 106 (Dec-Jan. 1997): 1033-122
39. Dykstra, Bright Radical Star, 90-99; unidentified clipping, n.p., Nodaway Valley Museum Underground Railway Binder; unidentified clipping, BH128, Nodaway Valley Museum Black History Binder; Burlington (Iowa) Hawk-Eye, May 11, 1900
40. Annual Report of the Secretary of State to the Legislature of Minnesota (St. Paul: Frederick Driscoll, State Printer, 1866)
41. John T. Hull, 1836-1880: Census of Iowa for 1880 (Des Moines: F. M. Mills, State Printer, 1883)
42. Manitowoc (Wisc.) Pilot, Apr. 17, 1863
43. Fond du Lac (Wisc.) Reporter, Oct. 25, 1862
44. The History of Dodge County, Wisconsin (Chicago: Western Historical Company, 1880), 711-12
45. Sister Mary Demetria Meyer, "The Germans in Wisconsin and the Civil War" (M.A. thesis, Catholic University, 1937), 36
46. Minneapolis Spokesman, Mar. 14, 1958; "History, Pilgrim Baptist Church, The First Negro Church in St. Paul," Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul (hereafter MHS)
47. St. Paul Pioneer, May 6, 15, 1863
48. St. Paul Daily Press, June 16, 1863
49. Louis S. Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman: Federal Policy toward Southern Blacks 1861-1865 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1973), 119-81
50. Ira Berlin et al., eds., The Destruction of Slavery, ser. 1, vol. 1 of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), 1-56, 249-69, 395-412
51. Ira Berlin et al., eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Lower South, ser. 1, vol. 3 of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990), 1-83, 621-50
52. and Ira Berlin et al., eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Upper South, ser. 1, vol. 2 of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993), 551-64
53. Although the legislature moved in 1863 to delay the end of Missouri slavery until 1870, Missouri ratified the Thirteenth Amendment in January 1865. See William E. Parrish, Turbulent Partnership: Missouri and the Union, 1861-1865 (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 1963), 130-48, 201
54. Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), 95-99
55. testimony of Dr. George Park, May 21, 1881, testimony of Eveline Pace, Mar. 4, 1879, and testimony of Mathilda Henderson, Mar. 5, 1879, in pension claim of George C. Young, XC 133472, Civil War Pension Files, Record Group 15, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. (hereafter NARA); Berlin et al., eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Upper South, 555-56
56. Jacob G. Forman, The Western Sanitary Commission: A Sketch (St. Louis: Mississippi Valley Sanitary Fair, 1864), 133-34
57. The Annual Report of the Freedmen's Relief Society of St. Louis, Missouri for 1863 (St. Louis Missouri Democrat, 1864)
58. Samuel Sawyer to Brigadier General Prentiss, Mar. 16, 1863, and Lucien Eaton to Major General Schofield, May 30, 1863, both in series 2593, Letters Received, 1861-1867, Department of the Missouri, Record Group 393 Pt. I, NARA
59. On the pursuit of fugitive slaves into Iowa during the war, see Rev. J. Cross to Rev. S. S. Jocelyn, Sept. 9, 1863, American Missionary Association Letters (Iowa), ISHS, Iowa City. On the recapture of a group of slave women and children heading for southern Iowa, see the St. Louis Missouri Democrat, Nov. 8, 1863
60. A. F. Sperry, History of the 33rd Iowa Infantry Volunteer Regiment 1863-6, ed. Gregory J. W. Urwin and Cathy Kunzinger Urwin (1866; reprint, Fayetteville: Univ. of Arkansas Press, 1999), 293n2
61. M. A. Rogers, "An Iowa Woman in Wartime, Part II,"" Annals of Iowa 35 (Spring 1961): 614. For retrospective accounts, see the Milwaukee Journal, Apr. 19, 1981
62. Mukwonago (Wisc.) Chief, Nov. 14, 1984
63. and Stevens Point (Wisc.) Journal, May 22, 1975
64. See also T. W. Newson, Pen Pictures of St. Paul, Minnesota and Biographical Sketches of Old Settlers (St. Paul: privately published, 1886), 396
65. Abram L. Harris, The Negro Population in Minneapolis: A Study of Race Relations (Minneapolis: Urban League and Phyllis Wheatley Settlement House, 1926), 6
66. St. Peter (Minn.) Tribune, Aug. 30, 1865
67. Minneapolis Spokesman, May 27, 1949
68. and the New Ulm (Minn.?) Review, Apr. 21, 1915
69. See William Cohen, At Freedom's Edge: Black Mobility and the Southern White Quest for Racial Control, 1861-1915 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1991), 92
70. For a discussion of the policy and its enforcement, see Berlin et al., eds., The Destruction of Slavery, 398-401, 404-10
71. and the Burlington (Iowa) Hawk-Eye, Sept. 18, 1862
72. For an example of a Minnesota soldier refusing to return slaves, see Berlin et al., eds., The Destruction of Slavery, 467-68
73. See also Maj. George E. Waring Jr. to Acting Major General Asboth, Dec. 19, 1861, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 128 vols. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1880-1901), ser. 1, vol. 3:451-51
74. On Elizabeth Estell, see Thomas Montgomery to Mother, May 27, June 14, Aug.?, 22,31, Oct. 12, 27, Nov. 27, 1864, Jan. 1, 14, 1864 [1865], June 11 [1865], Jan. 16, May 29, Dec. 5, 1866; Thomas Montgomery to Parents and Brothers, Oct. 22, 1864, Sept. 5, 23, 1866; Thomas Montgomery to Charles, Oct. 26, Dec. 17, 1864, Feb. 21, 1865, Mar. 29, 1866; and Thomas Montgomery to Father, Mar. 22, 1865, Feb. 23, 1866; all in Thomas Montgomery Papers, MHS
75. Keokuk Constitution, Feb. 13, 1863
76. Fairfield (Iowa) Ledger, June 26, 1862
77. Keokuk Constitution, Oct. 20 and Oct. 21, 1862
78. For other cases exploitation, see the Burlington Hawk-Eye, Feb. 6, 1863
79. Muscatine Journal, Nov. 14, 1863
80. and the Davenport Daily Democrat and News, Feb. 2, Apr. 25, May 26, 1863
81. Iowa's law was only sporadically enforced and was subsequently found to be unconstitutional. In 1863 several hundred petitioners requested a similar law in Wisconsin, and an unknown number petitioned Minnesota as well. See Dykstra, Bright Radical Star, 198-200
82. Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota, 44
83. State of Wisconsin, Journal of the Senate, Annual Session 1863 (Madison: S. D. Carpenter, 1863), 633-37
84. State of Wisconsin, Journal of the Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, Annual Session 1863 (Madison: S. D. Carpenter, 1863), 286-87, 529
85. On the army's response to the numbers of fugitive slaves gathering behind Union lines, see Maj. Gen. B. M. Prentiss to Maj. Gen. J. Schofield, Helena, Ark., June 16, 1863, ser. 2593, Letters Received, Dept. of the Missouri, Record Group 393 Pt. I, NARA
86. Both Cairo (later replaced by a camp on Island No. 10) and St. Louis were recipients of contraband slaves forwarded by military authorities from places further south. See, for example, the testimony of Ellen Reed, Dec. 10, 1896, in pension file of Cassius Reed, WC 411436, Civil War Pension Files, Record Group 15, NARA. For an early outline of the relocation program, see S. A. Duke to Major General Curtis, Mar. 9, 1863, ser. 2593, Letters Received, Dept. of the Missouri, Record Group 393, Pt. I, NARA
87. The number is reported in the Burlington Hawk-Eye, Sept. 1, 1862. Large numbers of contrabands similarly gathered at Helena, Arkansas, Jackson, Tennessee, and Corinth, Mississippi, in September 1862, placing additional pressure on General Grant and Secretary of War Stanton to authorize their relocation to Northern employers. See Berlin et al., eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Upper South, 27-29, 665-70
88. Lucius Hubbard to "My Dear Aunt Mary," Sept. 8, Oct. 13, 1862, Lucius F. Hubbard and Family Papers, AH875, MHS
89. Burlington Hawk-Eye, Oct. 10, 1862
90. Voegeli, Free but Not Equal, 13-20, 34-35, 60-63
91. Berlin et al.,eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Upper South, 28-29
92. Rev. J. B. Rogers, War Pictures: Experiences and Observations of a Chaplain in the U.S. Army (Chicago: Church & Goodman, 1863), 125-27, 132
93. Rogers, chaplain of the 14th Wisconsin Volunteers, served as superintendent of the camp at Cairo from the fall of 1862 until April 1863. For further accounts of organized relocation, see Missouri Democrat, Mar. 20, 1863
94. Keokuk Constitution, Oct. 5, 9, 10, 20, 21, 23, 25, 1862
95. Keokuk Daily Gate City, Aug. 20, Oct. 29, 1862, Apr. 1, 1863
96. Forman, The Western Sanitary Commission, 133-34
97. Berlin et al., eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Upper South, 566, 598, 615
98. and Samuel Sawyer to Brigadier General Prentiss, Mar. 16, 1863, Samuel Sawyer to Major General Curtis, Apr. 20, 1863, and Chaplain H. D. Fischer [5th Kansas Vols.] to Major General Scholield, June 22, 1863, all in Series 2593, Letters Received, Dept. of the Missouri, Record Group 393 Pt. I, NARA
99. Muscatine Courier, Oct. 2, 13, 1862
100. This conceptualization of wartime politics follows Jean Baker's study of the nineteenth-century Democratic party. Jean H. Baker, Affairs of Party: The Political Culture of Northern Democrats in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1983)
101. See also Mary Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City during the Nineteen th Century (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1997)
102. Joanne Pope Melish, "Of Politics and Publics," Radical History Review 709 (Winter 2001): 157-67
103. and Alice Fahs, The Imagined Civil War: Popular Literature of the North & South, 1861-1865 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2001)
104. On the association of the Republican party with an increasingly large, centralized, and powerful state, see Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859-1877 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990), 236,423
105. and David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans, 1862-1872 (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1981), 102
106. Mankato (Minn.) Semi-Weekly Record, Apr. 23, 1862
107. Manitowoc Pilot, Apr. 17, 1863, Dec. 5, 1862
108. See also James J. Robertson Jr., "Such is War: The Letters of an Orderly in the 7th Iowa Infantry," unidentified clipping, Civil War Files No. 1, Musser Public Library, Muscatine, Iowa; and the St. Paul Pioneer Press, Jan. 31, 1863
109. Stephen Douglas, quoted in Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1965), 268-69
110. Manitowoc Pilot, Dec. 12, 1862. In the Jan. 30, 1863, issue, the same editor complained that "while our volunteers are yet unpaid and their families suffering actual want, the public money is to be further wasted on the liberation of a class whom we shall have to feed afterwards."
111. For example, Florence Chapman of Indianola, Iowa, reported the attitude among many in her town that the entire purpose of the war was to elevate the negro and degrade the white man. Florence Chapman to Philo Chapman, Apr. 25, 1863, Chapman Papers, 1855-1866, ISHS, Iowa City. On white privilege, see David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York: Verso, 1999)
112. and Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998), 13-31, 204-5
113. For a substantive treatment of the events leading up to and following the August 1862 Dakota uprising, see Gary Clayton Anderson, Kinsmen of Another Kind: Dakota-White Relations in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1650-1862 (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1984), 203-80
114. Alvin M. Josephy, The Civil War in the American West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 95-154
115. Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1984), 437-47
116. and Richard N. Current, The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 2: The Civil War Era, 1848-1873 (Madison: n.p., 1976), 319-24
117. In addition to some 40,000 Minnesotans who fled into Wisconsin, panic also struck such towns as Manitowoc, Menomonie, Superior City, Sheboygan, Milwaukee, and Wauwatosa, among others. See Kerry A. Trask, Fire Within: A Civil War Narrative from Wisconsin (Kent, Ohio: Kent State Univ. Press, 1995), 132-340
118. Manitowoc Herald, Apr. 4, 1862
119. Senator Edward Salomon's message to the Wisconsin Senate and Assembly, reprinted in the Manitowoc Herald, Sept. 18, 1862
120. and Milo M. Quaife, "The Panic of 1862 in Wisconsin," Wisconsin Magazine of History 4 (Dec. 1920): 166-95
121. The centrality of relations with Indian people in the creation of a midwestern "white" consciousness is discussed by Susan E. Gray in "Stories Written in the Blood: Race and Midwestern History," in The American Midwest, ed. Andrew R. L. Cayton and Susan E. Gray (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 2001), 123-39
122. and Bruce M. White, "The Power of Whiteness, or, The Life and Times of Joseph Rolette Jr.," Making Minnesota Territory, 1849-1858, Special Issue of Minnesota History, ed. Anne R. Kaplan and Marilyn Ziebarth (1999): 26-45
123. The contrast between white-Indian histories in the Upper Midwest, where Indian populations persisted at midcentury, and the history of displacement in the Lower Midwest, is noted by Andrew R. L. Cayton and Susan E. Gray in "The Story of the Midwest: An Introduction," in The American Midwest, ed. Cayton and Gray, 14-15
124. St. Paul Pioneer Press, Feb. 10, 1863
125. St. Paul Daily Press, June 6, 1863
126. Fairfield Ledger, Mar. 19, 1863
127. Berlin et al., eds., The Black Military Experience, ser. 2, vol. 1 of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), 85
128. Mankato Semi-Weekly Record, Apr. 23, 1862
129. St. Paul Pioneer Press, Dec. 21, 1862, Feb. 10, 1863
130. Iowa Washington Democrat, Aug. 23, 1864
131. St. Paul Pioneer & Democrat, Oct. 1, 1862
132. Mankato Semi-Weekly Record, June 21, 1862
133. Missouri Democrat, Apr. 14, 1864
134. The predominantly rural western soldiers suffered a higher rate of mortality from disease than did their more urban eastern counterparts, although the latter suffered higher rates of battle deaths. See James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988), 471-72
135. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), 516
136. Robert R. Dykstra, Radical Republicans in the North: State Politics during Reconstruction (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976), 171-72
137. Quoted in George Bodnia, "The Racial and Political Attitudes of Minnesota Soldiers during the Civil War" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1974), 77-78
138. Manitowoc Pilot, Feb. 13, 1863
139. Oskaloosa (Iowa) Times, Mar. 5, 1863
140. Florence Chapman to Philo Chapman, Feb. 1, 1863, Chapman Papers, ISHS; and Iowa Washington Democrat, Aug. 23, 1864
141. Jones, American Work, 13
142. For examples of employers hiring black labor (either in the Midwest or recruited from St. Louis), see Peter H. Jaynes, ed., Highlights of Henry County, Iowa History 1833-1976 (Burlington: Doran & Ward Lithographing Co., 1976), 41-42
143. Fairfield Ledger, Dec. 4, 1862
144. J. Cross to Rev. S. S. Jocelyn, June 4, 1863, American Missionary Association Papers, ISHS; Burlington Hawk-Eye, Sept. 28, 1863, April 6, 1864
145. See also the St. Paul Pioneer Press, Jan. 4, May 7, 1863
146. St. Paul Daily Press, May 6, 15, 16, 1863
147. and Fond du Lac Commonwealth Reporter, Oct. 13, 1933
148. Mrs. Francis Harris Shirley recalled the attack in a 1933 interview. Fond du Lac Commonwealth Reporter, Oct. 13, 1933
149. On Rogers, see Berlin et al., eds., The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Lower South, 667-70
150. and Rev. J. B. Rogers, War Pictures
151. On the wartime agricultural economy, see chapter 7 of Paludan, "A People's Contest"
152. and Hubert H. Wubben, Civil War Iowa and the Copperhead Movement (Ames: Iowa State Univ. Press, 1981), 134-36
153. On midwestern urban economies, see Russell Lee Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization: The Civil War and the Formation of Urban-Industrial Society in a Northern City" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1996)
154. On the involvement of midwestern soldiers in the relocation of former slaves, see John L. Mathews to Sister, Aug. 14, 1863, John L. Mathews Papers, ISHS, Iowa City; Spangler, The Negro in Minnesota, 48-49
155. Lucius F. Hubbard to Aunt Mary, Sept. 8, Oct. 13, 1862, Lucius F. Hubbard and Family Papers, MHS; Orrin Densmore to Daniel Densmore, Mar. 24, 1864, Densmore Family Papers, MHS; Current, The History of Wisconsin 2:390-91
156. Burlington Hawk-Eye, Feb. 10, Mar. 17, 1864
157. Iowa State Register, June 13, 1863
158. Fond du Lac Weekly Commonwealth, Oct. 22, 1862
159. A. T. Glaze, Incidents and Anecdotes of Early Days and History of Business in the City and County of Fond Du Lac (Fond du Lac: P. B. Haber Print Co., 1905)
160. Delevan Enterprise, Feb. 13, 1986
161. Milwaukee Journal, Apr. 19, 1981
162. Racine Journal, Feb. 22, 1922
163. On wartime labor unrest in Midwestern towns and cities, see Wubben, Civil War Iowa, 137-38, 151-52
164. On ethnicity and race, see Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, 15-55
165. Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995)
166. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, 144-56, 167-76
167. June Drenning Holmquist, ed., They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State's Ethnic Groups (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1981), 130-52
168. and Jones, American Work, 270-72, 281-92
169. Christian Recorder, Dec. 6, 1862. Native-born ambivalence about the racial identity of Irish immigrants was expressed in the manuscript census, where Iowa census takers recorded Irish as "mulatto." See, for example, the 1856 manuscript census for Davenport, Scott County, Iowa, p. 27; and the 1869 manuscript census for 1st Ward, Keokuk, Lee County, p. 22
170. For attacks by Irish workers on black workers, see Mankato Semi-Weekly Record, June 14, 1862
171. Burlington Hawk-Eye, Apr. 6, 1864
172. Johnson, "An Army for Industrialization," 343
173. and Wubben, Civil War Iowa, 158. For attacks on contrabands arriving St. Paul, see St. Paul Daily Press, May 15, 16, June 6, 16, 1863
174. St. Paul Daily Press, May 17, 1863
175. and Burlington Hawk-Eye, Dec. 18, 1863
176. William W. Sandford to Annie Wittenmyer, n.d., unknown to Annie Wittenmyer, Oct. 27, 1862, and Mrs. John Shane to Annie Wittenmyer, Oct. 27, Dec. 8, 1862, Mar. 20, 1863, all in Annie Wittenmyer Papers, ISHS, Des Moines; Orrin Densmore to Benjamin Densmore, Aug. 20, 1864, and Orrin Densmore Jr. to Daniel Densmore, Oct. 27, 1864, Densmore Family Papers, MHS
177. Orrin Densmore to Daniel Densmore, Apr. 28, 1864, Densmore Family Papers, MHS; Wubben, Civil War Iowa, 132-33
178. Orrin Densmore to Benjamin Densmore, June 11, 1863; Norman Densmore to Daniel Densmore, Jan. 15, 1864; and Orrin Densmore to Daniel Densmore, July 10, 1864; all in Densmore Family Papers, MHS
179. R. E. Robinson, discovering two black children playing in a farmyard in Monroe County, Iowa - where the wartime black population increased from two to twenty-six-pulled up his wagon and offered passing farmers taking produce to market an agitated, impromptu address on "the evil consequences resulting from the emancipation of the black race," including "a premonition of the debasement and ultimate coalescence of the two races." Frank Kickenlooper, An Illustrated History of Monroe County, Iowa (Albia, Iowa: n.p., 1896), 183
180. A. F. Sperry, History of the 33rd Iowa Infantry Volunteer Regiment 1863-6, xxv-xxvi
181. On Northern white women's wartime activism, see Elizabeth D. Leonard, Yankee Women: Gender Battles in the Civil War (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994)
182. Mary Elizabeth Massey, Women in the Civil War (Lincoln, Neb.: Univ. of Kansas Press, 1994)
183. Fahs, The Imagined Civil War
184. and Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber, eds., Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1992)
185. In 1860 of the 4,441,830 African Americans in the United States, 226, 152 (5 percent) resided in the North; 3,953,760 slaves resided in the South (89 percent), as did 261,918 free blacks. See Joe William Trotter Jr., The African American Experience (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 2001), A-23
186. Moses Mosely, The Colored Man of America as a Slave and a Citizen of the United States (Mt. Pleasant, Iowa: Journal Co. Printers, 1884), 7
187. On postbellum challenges to segregation, see Coger v. North West Union Packet Co., 37 Iowa 145 (1873)
188. Robert D. Marshall, "Mount Pleasant: 'The Athens of Iowa,' 1865-1875" (M.A. thesis, University of Iowa, 1963), 51
189. Clark v. Board of Directors, 24 Iowa 266 (1868)
190. Dove v. The Independent School District of the City of Keokuk, 41 Iowa 689 (1875)
191. and Smith v. The Directors of the Independent School District of the City of Keokuk, 40 Iowa 518 (1875)
192. On Keokuk firefighters and their defense of segregation, see Faye Emma Harris, "A Frontier Community: The Economic, Social, and Political Development of Keokuk, Iowa, from 1820 to 1866" (Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa, 1965), 389
193. See also William D. Green, "Race and Segregation in St. Paul's Public Schools, 1846-1869," Minnesota History 55 (Winter 1996-97): 138-49
194. Leslie H. Fishel Jr., "The North and the Negro, 1865-1900: A Study in Race Discrimination" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1953), 238-40
195. and Dykstra, Bright Radical Star, 229