Strength and science: Gender, physiotherapy, and medicine in early-twentieth-century America

Journal of Women's History

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 2005, Pages

  Linker, Beth ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34547425145     PISSN: 10427961     EISSN: 15272036     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. Kriste Lindenmeyer, Right to Childhood: The U.S. Children's Bureau and Child Welfare, 1912-46 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997);
2. Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990);
3. Robyn Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890-1935 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991);
4. Sheila M. Rothman, Woman's Proper Place: A History of Changing Ideals and Practices, 1870 to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1978);
5. and Anne Firor Scott, Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991).
6. For a more specific treatment of the role that female physicians played in regard to the Children's Bureau, see Ellen S. More, Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine, 1850-1995 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999);
7. and Regina Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
8. For "imported socialistic scheme," see Meckel, Save the Babies, 216.
9. For a brief treatment of occupational and physiotherapy reconstruction aides, see Lettie Gavin, American Women in World War I: They Also Served (Niwot: University of Colorado Press, 1997), 101-28.
10. For a history of physiotherapy in Britain, see Gerald Larkin, Occupational Monopoly and Modern Medicine (London: Tavistock Publications, 1983), 92-124.
11. For general histories on nursing, see Susan Reverby, Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing, 1850-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987);
12. and Barbara Melosh, "The Physician's Hand" (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982).
13. See Quiroga, Occupational Therapy, 13ff, 35.
14. A comprehensive historical account of dietetics still remains to be written. For a brief overview of dieticians during World War I, see Katherine E. Manchester and Helen B. Gearin, "Dieticians Before World War II," in Army Medical Specialist Corps, ed. Robert S. Anderson, Harriet S. Lee, and Myra L. McDaniel (Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, 1968), 15-39.
15. See also Patricia A. M. Hodges, "Perspectives on History: Military Dietetics in Europe during World War I," Journal of the American Dietetic Association 93 (August 1993): 897-901.
16. To see the various forms of these behind the scenes battles, see Barbara Steinson, "The Mother Half of Humanity: American Women in the Peace and Preparedness Movements in World War I," in Women, War, and Revolution, ed. Carol R. Berkin and Clara M. Lovett (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1980).
17. For a more recent treatment of the uses of maternalism in times of war, see Lorraine Bayard de Volo, "Drafting Motherhood: Maternal Imagery and Organizations in the United States and Nicaragua," in The Women & War Reader, ed. Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 240-53.
18. For more on the role of female physicians during World War I, see Kimberly Jensen, "Uncle Sam's Loyal Nieces: American Medical Women, Citizenship, and War Service during World War I," in Women and Health in America, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt, 2nd ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999), 540-55.
19. A full account of Alice Hamilton's life and work can be found in Barbara Sicherman, Alice Hamilton: A Life in Letters (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).
20. For British physiotherapy during World War I, see Heap, "'Salvaging War's Waste,'" 224.
21. See also Larkin, Occupational Monarchy, 92-124.
22. See Emma Vogel, "Physical Therapists Before World War II," in Army Medical Specialist Corps, 44.
23. See Martha Verbrugge, "Knowledge and Power: Health and Physical Education for Women in America," in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima D. Apple (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 361-82.
24. For other accounts on the early history of physical education, see a reprinted version of the well-known essay written by Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Women and their Role in Nineteenth-Century America," in From 'Fair Sex' to Feminism, 13-37.
25. Also in this volume, see Patricia Vertinsky, "Body Shapes: The Role of the Medical Establishment in Informing Female Exercise and Physical Education in Nineteenth-Century North America," 256-81.
26. For recruitment requirements, see Ruby Decker, "Recollections and Reminiscences from Former Reconstruction Aides," Physical Therapy 56 (January 1976): 22-23.
27. Rosalie Donaldson Worthington, "Recollections and Reminiscences from Former Reconstruction Aides," Physical Therapy 56 (January 1976): 39-40.
28. Nellie Chilcote, "Recollections and Reminiscences from Former Reconstruction Aides," Physical Therapy 56 (January 1976): 36.
29. See, for example, Frank Granger, "The Development of Physiotherapy" P.T. Review 3 (June 1923): 16;
30. Dr. John C. Wilson, "The Place of the Physiotherapist in the Treatment of Infantile Paralysis," P.T. Review 4 (March 1924): 5, 8;
31. and Dr. Harry Mock, "Team Work in Physical Therapy," Physiotherapy Review 8 (1928): 2.
32. Edith McClure, "Recollections and Reminiscences from Former Reconstruction Aides," Physical Therapy 56 (January 1976): 35.
33. Ruby Decker, "A Hard Look," presented at the 43rd Annual Conference of the APTA, 11 July 1966, file 42, box 128, APTA.
34. Linda D. Gordon, Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Era (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990);
35. and Caroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
36. For a "community of interests. . .," see Cott, Grounding, 237.
37. See Martha Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood: Personal Health and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Boston (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).
38. For more on the physical education programs at Vassar and Bryn Mawr Colleges, see Rothman, A Woman's Proper Place, 30-33.
39. To compare these two colleges with Smith, see Atkinson, Feminist Physique, 38-57.
40. Wendy Murphy, Healing the Generations: A History of Physical Therapy and the American Physical Therapy Association (Alexandria, VA: American Physical Therapy Association, 1995), 12.
41. See Alice Duer Miller, "How Can a Woman Best Help," Carry On: A Magazine on the Reconstruction of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors 1 (June 1918): 17.
42. Granger, "The Development of Physiotherapy," 17.
43. See T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 60-96.
44. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science, 5.
45. For more on labor market segregation and the designation of jobs as "male" and "female," see Ruth Milkman, Gender At Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987). As Milkman has pointed out, aside from economic and cultural constraints, labor intensity is a key factor that plays a significant role in determining gender-specific jobs.
46. For a personal account of the labor required to perform physiotherapy, see Ida May Hazenhyer, "A History of the American Physiotherapy Association," Physiotherapy Review 26 (February 1946): 12.
47. reprinted in Hazenhyer, "A History," 9.
48. Hodges, "Perspectives on History," 900.
49. For "untrained graduates of massage," see J. F. Krasnye, "Status of Physiotherapy Aides, As It Is and As It Should Be," P.T. Review 2 (June 1922): 4-6.
50. E. G. Brackett, "Physiotherapy in Relation to Industrial Accidents," P.T. Review 2 (June 1921): 5-13;
51. and Norman E. Titus, "The Teaching of Physiotherapy," P.T. Review 5 (June 1925): 3-7.
52. Verbrugge, "Knowledge and Power," 372.
53. Carroll McAllister, "Recollections and Reminiscences from Former Reconstruction Aides," Physical Therapy 56 (January 1976): 36-37.
54. Carroll McAllister, "Recollections and Reminiscences from Former Reconstruction Aides," 36-37.
55. Julia Tuggle, "What is a Physiotherapist?" Physiotherapy Review 11 (1931): 13-15.
56. For a more global perspective on physiotherapy postwar career paths, see Vogel, "Physical Therapists Before World War II," 54-57.
57. Steven C. Martin, "'The Only Truly Scientific Method of Healing': Chiropractic and American Medicine, 1895-1990," Isis 85 (June 1994): 207-27.
58. See also Walter Wardwell, "Chiropractors: Evolution to Acceptance," in Norman Gevitz, Other Healers: Unorthodox Medicine in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 157-91.
59. J. Stuart Moore, Chiropractic in America: The History of a Medical Alternative (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993).
60. Rosemary Stevens, American Medicine and the Public Interest, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998);
61. Kenneth Ludmerer, Time to Heal: American Medicine from the Turn of the Century to the Era of Managed Care (New York: Basic Books, 1999);
62. and George Rosen, The Structure of American Medical Practice, 1875-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983).
63. For the APA's rhetoric of science, see "American Women's Physical Therapeutic Association Constitution," P.T. Review 1 (March 1921): 56;
64. Emily Wellington, "Physiotherapy in General Hospital Practice," Physiotherapy Review 7 (September 1927): 8-11;
65. and Ida Hazenhyer, "The Convention at Minneapolis," Physiotherapy Review 8 (June 1928): 2-4.
66. For membership moratorium, see Physiotherapy Review 13 (July-August 1933): 150.
67. and "American Physiotherapy Association Constitution," Article II, file 6, box 35, APTA.
68. Rima D. Apple, "Introduction," in Women, Health, and Medicine in America: A Historical Handbook, ed. Rima D. Apple, xiii-xxii.
69. See Ladd-Taylor, Mother-Work, 189;
70. Muncy, Creating a Female Dominion, 146-48;
71. I have dealt with this topic briefly in my own work. See Beth Linker, "Picture Perfect: Representation, Medicine, and Consensus in Wartime America, 1918-19" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association, Washington DC, 10 January 2004).
72. For more on the masculinity crisis at the turn of the twentieth century in America, see Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);
73. and John F. Kasson, Houdini, Tarzan, and the Perfect Man: The White Male Body and the Challenge of Modernity in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).
74. For an excellent account of the importance of war for masculinity, see Susan Jeffords, The Remasculinization of America: Gender and the Vietnam War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).