Voluntary environmental regulation in developing countries: A Mexican case study

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 46, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 1005-1042

  Blackman, Allen ^a   Sisto, Nicholas ^b  

^a RESOURCES FOR THE FUTURE   (United States)

^b SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND SCIENCES   (Mexico)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPING WORLD; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; POLLUTION CONTROL; POLLUTION POLICY; VOLUNTARY APPROACH;

GUANAJUATO; MEXICO [NORTH AMERICA]; NORTH AMERICA;

EID: 34447501689     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (220)

1. See THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COMMAND AND CONTROL IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY, at xv (Gloria E. Helfand & Peter Berck eds., 2003).
2. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, EVERYDAY CHOICES: OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP 7 (2005).
3. See generally Kathryn Harrison, Talking with the Donkey: Cooperative Approaches to Environmental Protection, 2 J. INDUS. ECOLOGY 51 (1999);
4. Madhu Khanna, Non-Mandatory Approaches to Environmental Protection, 15 J. ECON. SURVS. 291 (2001);
5. Thomas P. Lyon & John W. Maxwell, "Voluntary" Approaches to Environmental Regulation, in ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (Maurizio Franzini & Antonio Nicita eds., 2002).
6. THOMAS P. LYON, RES. FOR THE FUTURE, RFF IB 03-01, VOLUNTARY VERSUS MANDATORY APPROACHES TO CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION 2 (2003).
7. See John W. Maxwell et al., Self-Regulation and Social Welfare: The Political Economy of Corporate Environmentalism, 43 J.L. & ECON. 583 (2000).
8. Kathleen Segerson & Thomas J. Miceli, Voluntary Environmental Agreements: Good or Bad News for Environmental Protection?, 36 J. ENVTL. ECON. & MGMT. 109, 111 (1998).
9. See generally Andrew A. King & Michael J. Lenox, Industry Self-Regulation Without Sanctions: The Chemical Industry's Responsible Care Program, 43 ACAD. MGMT. J. 698 (2000).
10. ALLEN BLACKMAN ET AL., RES. FOR THE FUTURE, ASSESSMENT OF COLUMBIA'S NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM (SINA) 81-82 (2005);
11. Jonathon Hanks, A Role for Negotiated Environmental Agreements in Developing Countries?, in VOLUNTARY ENVIRONMENTAL GREEMENTS: PROCESS, PRACTICE AND FUTURE USE 159, 165 (Patrick ten Brink ed., 2002).
12. See also Jorge Rivera, Assessing a Voluntary Environmental Initiative in the Developing World: The Costa Rican Certification for Sustainable Tourism, 35 POL'Y SCI. 333 (2002);
13. VOLUNTARY ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS: PROCESS, PRACITCE AND FUTURE USE 155-240 (Patrick ten Brink ed., 2002).
14. Hanks, supra note 8, at 160.
15. See also WORLD BANK, GREENING INDUSTRY: NEW ROLES FOR COMMUNITIES, MARKETS, AND GOVERNMENTS 82-94 (2000).
16. See, e.g., COMM'N FOR ENVTL. COOPERATION SECRETARIAT, CEC SECRETARIAT REPORT ON THE DEADTH OF MIGRATORY BIRDS AT THE SILVA RESERVOIR (1994-95), at 1 (1995).
17. SECRETARIA DE DESARROLLO URBANO Y ECOLOGIA, CONVENIO REALIZADO PARA PREVENIR Y CONTROLAR LA CONTAMINACIÓN DE LA INDUSTRIA CURTIDORA EN LEÓN, GTO. Y SU AREA METROPOLITANA [COVENANT TO PREVENT & CONTROL CONTAMINATION BY THE TANNERY INDUSTRY (1987) [hereinafter Convenio 1];
18. CONVENIO DE CONCERTACIÓN PARA UN PROGRAMA INTEGRAL DE SANEAMIENTO DEL AMBIENTE EVITANDO LA CONTAMINACIÓN GENERADA POR LAS ACTIVIDADES DE LA CURTIDURÍA EN EL MUNICIPIO DE LEÓN (1991) [hereinafter Convenio II];
19. ACTA DE LA QUINTA SESIÓN ORDINARIA DE LA COMISIÓN PARA EL SANEAMIENTO INTEGRAL DEL RÍO TURBIO (1995) [hereinafter Convenio III];
20. CONVENIO DE COORDINACIÓN Y CONCERTACIÓN (1997) [hereinafter Convenio IV]
21. Lack of regulatory infrastructure has also ruled out reliance on less conventional economic incentive pollution control instruments such as emissions charges and tradable permits. Economic incentive instruments are generally considered to be at least as demanding of regulatory infrastructure as command-and-control instruments and have a spotty record in developing countries. See, e.g., Allen Blackman & Winston Harrington, The Use of Economic Incentives in Developing Countries: Lessons from International Experience with Industrial Air Pollution, 9 J. ENV'T & DEV. 5 (2000);
22. RUTH GREENSPAN BELL, ORG. FOR ECON. COOPERATION & DEV., CHOOSING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY INSTRUMENTS IN THE REAL WORLD 12-13 (2003) (prepared for OECD Global Forum on Sustainable Development).
23. INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ESTADÍSTICA, GEOGRAFÍA E INFORMÁTICA [NAT'L INST. OF STATISTICS, GEOGRAPHY & COMPUTING], XII CENSO GENERAL DE POBLACIÓN Y VIVIENDA [12TH GEN'L POPULATION & HOUSING CENSUS (2000), http://www.inegi.gob.mx/ inegi/default.asp.
24. INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ESTADÍSTICA, GEOGRAFÍA E INFORMÁTICA [NAT'L INST. OF STATISTICS, GEOGRAPHY AND COMPUTING], CENSOS ECONÓMICOS [ECONOMIC CENSUS (1999), http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/default.asp?c=6340 [hereinafter ECONOMIC CENSUS]. The figure is obtained by comparing the municipality's production value to the national total for code 3161 of the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS).
25. See NAT'L TECHNICAL INFO. SERV., NORTH AMERICAN INDUSTRY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (2002), http://www.census.gov/epcd/www/ naics.html.
26. ECONOMIC CENSUS, supra note 14. The figure is obtained by comparing employment for NAICS codes 3161 and 31-32-33 for the municipality.
27. Id. The figure is the number of establishments for NAICS code 3161 for the municipality. Some tanneries are also located in the much smaller neighboring cities of San Francisco del Rincón and Purísima del Rincón. To make the analysis more manageable, we have restricted our attention to the city of León.
28. Interview with J.L. Villalobos, Subprocurador de Verificación Normativa, Procuraduría de Protección al Ambiente del Estado de Guanajuato (PPAEG), in Guanajuato, Gto., Mex. (Jan. 27, 1999).
29. A study in the early 1990s found that 96 percent of a sample of 583 tanneries had 16 or fewer employees. Carl R. Bartone & Livia Benavides, Local Management of Hazardous Wastes from Small-Scale and Cottage Industries, 15 WASTE MGMT. & RESEARCH 3, 9 (1997).
30. A January 2000 survey of 137 tanneries in León found that the average tannery employed 16 workers and produced 499 semi-finished hides per week. See Allen Blackman, Small Firms and Clean Technologies: Part II: Leather Tanning in León, Mexico, in SMALL FIRMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: COLLECTIVE IMPACTS, COLLECTIVE ACTION 191, 194 (Allen Blackman ed., 2006).
31. Interview with A. Azuela, Former Director, Procuraduría de Protección al Ambiente (PROFEPA), in Austin, Tex. (May 6, 2002);
32. Interview with José Angel Oyarvide Polo, Former Delegado, PROFEPA, in León, Gto., Mex. (May 31, 2002);
33. Interview with M. Hernández, Director de Verificación Normativa, PPAEG, in Guanajuato, Gto., Mex. (May 29, 2002).
34. U.N. ENV'T PROGRAMME & INDUS. & ENV'T OFF., TECHNICAL REP. SERIES NO. 4, TANNERIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT: A TECHNICAL GUIDE 21-22, U.N. Sales No. E.91.III.D.1 (1991).
35. Collectively, León's tanneries emit roughly 43,000 tons of total dissolved solids and 500 tons of chromium per year. Bartone & Benavides, supra note 18, at 9.
36. U.N. ENV'T PROGRAMME & INDUS. & ENV'T OFF., supra note 20, at 21.
37. U.N. Indus. Dev. Org. [UNIDO], Technical Report: Sources, Detection and Avoidance of Hexavalent Chromium in Leather and Leather Products, ¶ 2, U.N. Doc. US/RAS/92/120 (Aug. 1999).
38. Collectively, León's tanneries generate approximately 200 tons of sludge per day. Guevara E. Socorro, Comenzaría a operar el Parque de Lodos el próximo lunes, aunque aún no se tiene autorización [Parque de Lodos Would Start Operating Next Monday Without Authorization], CORREO, May 17, 2000, at 23.
39. Bartone & Benavides, supra note 18, at 9-10.
40. Of 137 tanneries surveyed in January 2000, none had wastewater treatment systems. Blackman, supra note 18, at 192-93.
41. The nearest hazardous waste disposal facility is 800 kilometers away in Mina, Nuevo León, near Monterrey.
42. Guevara E. Socorro, Autoridades Federales Interpondrán Demanda Penal Contra CICUR [Federal Authorities to Interpose Sanction Against CICUR], CORREO, May 21, 2000, at 19.
43. COMISIÓN ESTATAL DE AGUA Y SANEAMIENTO DE GUANAJUATO, PLAN ESTATAL HIDRÁULICO DE GUANAJUATO 2000-2005: DIAGNÓSTICO DE LA SITUACION HIDRÁULICA DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO Y ESTRATEGIA EN MATERIA DE AGUA [GUANAJUATO STATE HYDRAULIC PLAN 2000-2005: HYDRAULIC DIAGNOSTIC & WATER STRATEGY] 91 (1999).
44. Inteview with José Angel Oyarvide, supra note 19.
45. Tanneries also contribute to groundwater degradation. Chromium contamination of León's drinking water wells has been documented since at least the mid 1980s, although authorities at the time did not seem to be concerned. See Federico Velio Ortega, No Representan Peligro los Residuos de Cromo en el Agua [Chromium Residue in Water Does Not Present Danger], EL NACIONAL, Apr. 17, 1987, at 3.
46. Later studies suggest that the problem is significant, although tanneries are only one of several sources of chromium that contaminate the aquifer. M.A. Armienta et al., Groundwater Pollution with Chromium in Leon Valley, Mexico, 54 INT'L J. ENVTL. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 1, 12-13 (1993).
47. Ley Federal para Prevenir y Controlar la Contaminación Ambiental [Law for the Prevention & Control of Environmental Contamination], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 23 de Marzo de 1971 (Mex.) [hereinafter L.F.P.C.C.A.].
48. Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, Summary of Environmental Law in Mexico, http://www.cec.org/pubs_info_resources/law_treat_agree/ summary_enviro∧w/publication/mxdoc.cfm?varlan=english&topic=1 (follow "chapter 2" hyperlink; then examine "Historical Background").
49. L.F.P.C.C.A., supra note 28, § 50.
50. Ley Federal de Protección al Ambiente [L.F.P.A.] [Environmental Protection Law], Primera Sección, Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.] § 5, 11 de Enero de 1982 (Mex.).
51. SEDUE was still required to coordinate the formulation and application of environmental policy with SSA, however. Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal [L.O.A.P.F.], as reformed and amended, Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.] § 37-XV, 29 de Diciembre de 1982 (Mex.).
52. Donna Lybecker & Steven P. Mumme, Decentralization and Environmental Protection on Mexico's Northern and Southern Boundaries, 11 J. ENV'T & DEV. 402, 412 (2002).
53. Id.
54. Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 29, at 2.
55. Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y la Protección al Ambiente [Environment Protection Law], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.] capitulo II, 28 de Enero de 1988 (Mex.) [hereinafter L.G.E.E.J.
56. ENVTL. LAW INST., ELI PROJECT NO. 931500, DECENTRALIZATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN MEXICO: AN OVERVIEW OF STATE AND LOCAL INSTITUTIONS, at iii, 14-15 (1996).
57. For other areas such as air pollution and enviromnental impact review, federal and local governments were to divide jurisdiction based on factors such as the location and nature of the source and the severity of pollution. Id.
58. The LGEEPA also conferred upon states and municipalities all environmental powers within their jurisdictions not expressly reserved to the federal government. Id.
59. Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 29, at 2.
60. Id.
61. Id.
62. ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPERATION & DEV., ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE REVIEWS: MEXICO 47 (1998).
63. ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPERATION & DEV., ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE REVIEWS: MEXICO 127 (2003).
64. L.G.E.E., supra note 36, capitulo IV, § VI.
65. Norma Oficial Mexicana [NOM-CRP-001-ECOL/93], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], Anexo 2, § 4.2, 22 de Octubre de 1993 (Mex.); Norma Oficial Mexicana [NOM-CRP-006-ECOL/93], Diario, Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 22 de Octubre de 1993 (Mex.).
66. Interview with M. Hernández, supra note 19.
67. See Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 29, at 9;
68. ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPERATION & DEV., supra note 41, at 64.
69. Interview with Carlos Oliverio Pantoja, Director de Techología Ambiental, Universidad Tecnológica de León, in León, Gto., Mex. (May 30, 2002).
70. Norma Oficial Mexicana [NOM-001-ECOL-1996], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 6 de Enero de 1997 (Mex.).
71. Norma Oficial Mexicana [NOM-002-ECOL-1996], Diario Oficial de la Federación [D.O.], 3 de Junio de 1998 (Mex.).
72. NOM-001-ECOL-1996 § 4.5b; NOM-002-ECOL-1996 § 3.5.
73. Id.
74. Norma Oficial Mexicana [NOM-002-ECOL-1996], supra note 49, § 4.9.
75. Id.
76. ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPERATION & DEV., supra note 41, at 144;
77. Lybecker & Mumme, supra note 33, at 414.
78. Lybecker & Mumme, supra note 33, at 413.
79. Decreto Número 127 [Decree Number 127], PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO, 28 de Agosto 1990 (Mex).
80. Decreto Número 16, Periódico oficial del estado de Guanajuato, no. 15, parte II, at 1230, 20 de febrero de 1996 (Mex.);
81. Decreto Número 28, periódico oficial del estado de Guanajuato, no. 39, parte II, 14 de mayo de 1996 (Mex.).
82. Interview with José Angel Oyarvide, supra note 19.
83. Interview with A. Azuela, supra note 19;
84. Interview with José Angel Oyarvide, supra note 19.
85. Reglamento Municipal Para el Control de la Calidad Ambiental en la Ciudad de León, Guanajuato [Municipal Regulations for the Control of Air Quality in León, Guanajuato], PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO § 2, 17 de Diciembre 1991 (Mex.).
86. Reglamento de la Comisión Municipal de Ecología de la Ciudad de León, Guanajuato [Regulations for the Municipal Ecology Commission of León, Guanajuato], PERIÓDICO OFFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO, 3 de Marzo 1992 (Mex.);
87. Acuerdo por virtud del cual, se define la Competencia de la Dirección del Medio Ambiente y Ecología del Municipio de León, Guanajuato [Agreement to Define the Environment and Ecology Office of León, Guanajuato] PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO § 2, 30 de Diciembre 1994 (Mex.).
88. See ENVTL. LAW INST., supra note 37, at 25.
89. Reglamento de Uso de la Red de Alcantarillado del Sistema de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de León, Gto. [Regulations for the Use of the Municipal Sewage Network for Potable and Waste Water of León, Guanajuato], PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO 9 de Abril 1985 (Mex.).
90. See Reglamento de Uso de la Red de Alcantarillado del Sistema de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de León, Gto. [Regulations for the Use of the Municipal Sewage Network for Potable and Waste Water of León, Guanajuato] § 2, 1998 PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO 3 de Febrero1998 (Mex.).
91. Id.
92. L.G.E.E., supra note 36, art. 119.
93. Decreto Número 281 [Decree Number 281], 1994 PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO § 3,17 de Marzo 1994 (Mex.).
94. See Rossana Aguilar Aguirre, Fue Inaugurada Planta de Tratamiento de Aguas Residuales [Waste Water Treatment Plant Is Inaugurated], CORREO DE, HOY, 21 de Septiembre, at 21 (Mex.).
95. Socorro Guevara, Aun no Concluye la Primera Etapa del Parque de Lodos [The First Stage of Sludge Park Is Not Completed], CORREO DE HOY , 30 de Mayo 2000, at 21 (Mex.).
96. Convenio II, supra note 11, at 4;
97. Convenio IV, supra note 11, §§ 10i-101.
98. Regalamento de Zonificación y Usos del Suelo de Municipio de León, Gto. periodico oficial del estado de Guanajuato, no. 10, parte 111, at 1034, 3 de febrero 1998 (Mex.).
99. See L.G.E., supra note 36, § 37-XV.
100. See Philippus Webster et al., Managing the Water Transition in the Lerma-Chapala Basin, Mexico, in INTERSECTORAL MANAGEMENT OF RIVER BASINS 161 (Charles L. Abernathy ed., 2001).
101. Interview with Carlos Oliverio, supra note 47;
102. Interview with José Angel Oyarvide, supra note 19.
103. Interview Carlos Oliverio, supra note 47.
104. ORG. FOR ECON. COOPERATION & DEV., supra note 41, at 144;
105. ENVTL. LAW INST., supra note 37, at v.
106. ORG. FOR ECON. CO-OPERATION & DEV., supra note 461 at 72,143;
107. Hanks, supra note 8, at 165.
108. See Convenio I, supra note 11.
109. Id. cl. 12.
110. Id. cls. 2d-3d;
111. see also id. cl. 6, tbl.
112. Id. cl. 4.
113. Id. cl. 7.
114. Id. cls. 8-9.
115. Convenio I, supra note 11, cl. 6, tbl.
116. Id.
117. Id.
118. Id. cls. 6, 7, 10.
119. Id. cl. 6, tbl.
120. Id. cl. 4.
121. Convenio I, supra note 11, cl. 3d.
122. Id. cls. 6,8, tbl.
123. Id. cl. 7.
124. Id. cl. 6, tbl.
125. Id. cls. 2d-3d, cls. 5-6, tbl.
126. Id. cl. 6, tbl.
127. Original survey data collected by the authors.
128. See generally L.G.E.E., supra note 36;
129. Commn for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 29, ch. 2.
130. Ley de Ecología para el Estado de Guanajuato [Law of Ecology for the State of Guanajuato], supra note 56;
131. Decreto Gubernativo Número 16 [Gubernatorial Decree Number 16], supra note 57.
132. Convenio H, supra note 11, at 8. The second convenio is less formal in its structure than the first - it is introduced as a minuta [memorandum]. As such, it is rather haphazardly constructed and is not divided into numbered clauses.
133. Interview with Carlos Oliverio, supra note 47.
134. Convenio II, supra note 11, at 1, 3.
135. Id. at 5-7.
136. Interview with Carlos Oliverio, supra note 47.
137. Convenio II, supra note 11, at 5-6.
138. Id. at 8.
139. Id. at 4.
140. Id.
141. Id. at 5-6.
142. Id. at 5-7.
143. Regalamento de Zonificación Uses del Suelo de Municipio de León, Gto., supra note 71.
144. Interview with Carlos Oliverio, supra note 47;
145. Ignacio Velásquez, La Crisis Frena la Compra de Terrenos en el Parque Industrial Ecológico, HERALDO DE LEÓN (Mex.), Apr. 12, 1999, at 7.
146. Sandra Muñoz Vázquez, Con Una Inversión de 12 mdp Terminarán Subestación Eléctrica del Parque Piel [The Electric Substation of the Piel Park will be completed with a 12 million pesos Investment], CORREO DE HOY (Mex.), Sept. 4, 2001, at 18.
147. Visit to PIEL by the authors, fall 2002.
148. Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 10, at 1.
149. Id. at 12.
150. Id. at 1.
151. COMISIÓN NACIONAL DEL AGUA, REPORTE DE AVANCE DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN PARA DETERMINAR LAS CAUSAS DE LA MORTANDAD MASIVA DE AVES EN LA PRESA DE SILVA EN EL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO (1995) (cited in COMM'N FOR ENVTL. COOPERATION SECRETARIAT, supra note 10);
152. M. GÓMEZ RUIZ & C. HUMBERTO, MORTANDAD DE AVES MIGRATORIAS, PRESA DE SILVA, GUANJUATO (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Facultad de Química) (1995) (cited in COMM'N FOR ENVTL. COOPERATION SECRETARIAT, supra note 10).
153. Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 10, at 4.
154. Id. at 63-69.
155. Interview with Azuela, supra note 19;
156. Interview with Oliverio, supra note 47;
157. Interview with Oyarvide, supra note 27.
158. Decreto Gubernativo, Número, 80 [Gubernatorial Decree Number 80], PERIÓDICO OFICIAL DEL ESTADO DE GUANAJUATO, Segunda Parte, 16 de Enero de 1998 (Mex.).
159. See NOM-CRP-001-ECOL/93, Anexo 2 § 4.2; NOM-CRP-006-ECOL/93.
160. Comm'n for Envtl. Cooperation, supra note 29, ch. 2.
161. Interview with Carlos Oliverio Pantajo, supra note 47.
162. Decreto Número 281, supra note 67, § 3.
163. Interview with Oliverio, supra note 47;
164. CEC, supra note 10, at 23.
165. See Convenio III, supra note 11.
166. Id. §§ 4b, 5a-b, 5d.
167. Id. § 3.
168. Id. § 9d.
169. Id. § 9e.
170. Id. § 6b, c.
171. Convenio III, supra note 11, § 3e.
172. Id. § 10a.
173. Id. § 5f, k.
174. Id. § 6b.
175. Id. §§ 9c, 12.
176. Id. § 9c.
177. Id. §§ 5h, 11.
178. Id. § 8.
179. Id. § 11a.
180. Id. §§ 2a, 4c, 5e.
181. Id. §§ 3,4b, 5a, b, d, 6b, 9e.
182. Id. §§ 5h, 8.
183. SEMARNAP agreed to provide "support to firms seeking financing"; the state committed to "financially support the municipalities' dean up initiatives"; and municipalities agreed to "support the relocation of firms to Parque PIEL." Id. §§ 2c, 4a, 5f.
184. Id. § 6a.
185. Id. § 9e.
186. S. Naya Reynaud, Proyedo de Saneamineto de Aguas Residuales Domésticas e Industiales de la Ciudad de León, Guanajuato, 62 DINÁNUCA DE LA CURIDURÍA 9, 9-10 (1996).
187. CIATEC, APPÉNDICE ECOLÓGICO PARA LA INDUSTRIA DEL CUERO 13-45 (1996).
188. INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE ECOLOGÍA (SEMARNAP) ET AL., MANUAL PARA LA CLASIFICACÓN Y MANEJO DE LOS RESIDUOS DE LA CURTIDURÍA (1997).
189. Interview with Biól. Robert Aviña Carlin, Director of FUNDAE, in Guanajuato, Gto. (July 15, 2002).
190. Decreto Número 16, supra note 57;
191. Decreto Número 28, supra note 57.
192. Convenio IV, supra note 11.
193. Id. §§ 6b, 7c.
194. Id. § 31.
195. Id. §§ 4, 10g.
196. Id. §§ 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.
197. Id. § 3c.
198. Convenio IV, supra note 11, § 7b.
199. Id. § 8b.
200. Id.
201. Id. § 10i, j, k, 1.
202. Id. § 6g, f.
203. Id. § 6h.
204. Convenio IV, supra note 11, § 8a.
205. Id. § 10b.
206. Id. § 7k.
207. Id §§ 6e, 7i, 8c.
208. Id § 8b.
209. Id. § 7e, g.
210. Convenio IV, supra note 11, § 7o.
211. Id. § 10h.
212. Speech by Rafael Arriaga, Director of IEEG, to a CICUR Extraordinary Assembly, 77 DINÁMICA DE LA CURIDURÍA (May 1997).
213. Convenio IV, supra note 11, § 10i, j, k, l.
214. Id. § 10b.
215. Id. § 10h.
216. Id. § 7o.
217. Reglamento de Uso de la Red de Alcantarillado del Sistema de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado de León, Gto., supra note 64.
218. Fue Inaugurada Planta de Tratamiento de Aguas Residuales, supra note 68.
219. A more cynical - and not necessarily mutually exclusive - interpretation is that the convenios provided political cover to local regulators who were unable or unwilling to use conventional regulatory tools.
220. Lyon, supra note 4.