Science along the railroad: Expanding field work in the US central west

Annals of Science

Volumn 61, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 187-211

  Vetter, Jeremy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTOMOBILES; CONSTRUCTION; GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS; KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING; NATURAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION; RAILROADS; RESEARCH; RIVERS; TRANSPORTATION; VEGETATION;

FIELD WORK; GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS; RAILWAY COMPANIES; RAILWAY CORRIDORS;

RAILS;

EID: 3442880410     PISSN: 00033790     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00033790310001592944     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
2. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
3. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
4. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
5. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
6. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
7. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
8. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
9. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
10. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
11. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
12. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
13. On the relationship between railroad construction and geological knowledge making in Britain, see Michael Freeman, Tracks to a new world: railway excavation and the extension of geological knowledge in mid-nineteenth-century Britain', British Journal for the History of Science,' 34 (2001), 51-65. On geology and railroad development in Kansas, see John C. Gries, 'Geological exploration as related to railroad development in Kansas and the western United States', Earth Sciences History, 3 (1984), 129-33. On railroads and development of pisciculture in the USA, see Darin Kinsey, The fish car era in Nebraska', Railroad History, 177 (1997), 43-67. On the US transcontinental railroad surveys of the 1850s, see William Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York, 1966), 263-302; Army Exploration in the American West, 1803-1863 (New Haven, Connecticut, 1959), 262-337 ; John A. Moore, 'Zoology of the Pacific Railroad surveys', American Zoologist, 26 (1986), 331-41. On the role of railroads and other technological developments in the expansion of European colonial powers in the nineteenth century, see Daniel Headrick, The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1981); The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (New York, 1988). For general overviews of the social and cultural impact of railways in the USA, see George H. Douglas, All Aboard! The Railway in American Life (New York, 1992) ; Sarah H. Gordon, Passage to Union: How the Railroads Transformed American Life, 1829-1929 (Chicago, Illinois, 1996). Other US railway histories include John F. Stover, American Railroads, 2nd edn (Chicago, Illinois, 1997); James E. Vance, The North American Railroad: Its Origin, Evolution, and Geography (Baltimore, Maryland, 1995) ; James A. Ward, Railroads and the Character of America 1820-1887 (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1986).
14. In this essay, 'science' is defined broadly to include everything from geology and paleontology to ecology and archaeology. Undoubtedly some branches of science such as geology had special relationships with the railways, but here I am concerned with a diverse group of research subjects. This varied research work is linked together not by subject matter but by virtue of being conducted in a particular kind of place, the field rather than the laboratory. On the general characteristics of the field sciences, see the introduction to the Osiris volume on Science in the Field: Henrika Kuklick and Robert E. Kohler, 'Introduction', Osiris, 11 (1996), 1-14.
15. Some other works that have been influential in shaping my approach to the history of scientific field work include Henrika Kuklick, 'After Ishmael: the fieldwork tradition and its future', Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science, edited by Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson (Berkeley, California, 1997), 47-65
16. ; Sharon E. Kingsland, 'An elusive science: ecological enterprise in the southwestern United States', Science and Nature: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences, edited by Michael Shortland (Oxford, 1993), 151-79;
17. Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, Empire and the Sun: Victorian Solar Eclipse Expeditions (Stanford, California, 2002);
18. Helen M. Rozwadowski, 'Small world: forging a scientific maritime culture for oceanography', Isis, 87 (1996), 409-29;
19. Martin J. S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, Illinois, 1985) ; Lyn Schumaker, Africanizing Anthropology: Fieldwork, Networks, and the Making of Cultural Knowledge in Central Africa (Durham, North Carolina, 2001); Anne Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science, 32 (1994), 269-315 ; and James A. Secord, 'King of Siluria: Roderick Murchison and the imperial theme in nineteenth-century British geology', Victorian Studies, 25 (1982), 413-42.
20. Martin J. S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, Illinois, 1985) ; Lyn Schumaker, Africanizing Anthropology: Fieldwork, Networks, and the Making of Cultural Knowledge in Central Africa (Durham, North Carolina, 2001); Anne Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science, 32 (1994), 269-315 ; and James A. Secord, 'King of Siluria: Roderick Murchison and the imperial theme in nineteenth-century British geology', Victorian Studies, 25 (1982), 413-42.
21. Martin J. S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, Illinois, 1985) ; Lyn Schumaker, Africanizing Anthropology: Fieldwork, Networks, and the Making of Cultural Knowledge in Central Africa (Durham, North Carolina, 2001); Anne Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science, 32 (1994), 269-315 ; and James A. Secord, 'King of Siluria: Roderick Murchison and the imperial theme in nineteenth-century British geology', Victorian Studies, 25 (1982), 413-42.
22. Martin J. S. Rudwick, The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists (Chicago, Illinois, 1985) ; Lyn Schumaker, Africanizing Anthropology: Fieldwork, Networks, and the Making of Cultural Knowledge in Central Africa (Durham, North Carolina, 2001); Anne Secord, 'Science in the pub: artisan botanists in early nineteenth-century Lancashire', History of Science, 32 (1994), 269-315 ; and James A. Secord, 'King of Siluria: Roderick Murchison and the imperial theme in nineteenth-century British geology', Victorian Studies, 25 (1982), 413-42.
23. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
24. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
25. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
26. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
27. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
28. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
29. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
30. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
31. On the railroad companies as the first exemplars of corporate business management, see Alfred D. Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977). See also Alfred D. Chandler, 'The railroads: pioneers in modern corporate management', Business History Review, 39 (1965), 16-40. Four recent narrative accounts include David Howard Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999) ; Dee Brown, Hear That Lonesome Whistle Blow: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroads, 2nd edn (New York: Holt, 2001); Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like It In the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869 (New York, 2000); John Hoyt Williams, A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad (New York, 1988). For an older account with useful maps depicting the original route of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Robert G. Athearn, Union Pacific Country (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1971). For a comprehensive history of the Union Pacific Railroad, see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987) ; Union Pacific: The Rebirth, 1894-1969 (Garden City, New York, 1989).
32. Thurman Wilkins, Clarence King: A Biography, 2nd edn (Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1988), 47.
33. Elliott West, The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado (Lawrence, Kansas, 1998).
34. F. V. Hayden, 'Explorations under the War Department', Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 9 (1857), 109-16. On the development of steamboat transportation on the Missouri and other western rivers, see Louis C. Hunter, Steamboats on the Western Rivers: An Economic and Technological History (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1949); William E. Lass, A History of Steamboating on the Upper Missouri River (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1962).
35. F. V. Hayden, 'Explorations under the War Department', Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 9 (1857), 109-16. On the development of steamboat transportation on the Missouri and other western rivers, see Louis C. Hunter, Steamboats on the Western Rivers: An Economic and Technological History (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1949); William E. Lass, A History of Steamboating on the Upper Missouri River (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1962).
36. F. V. Hayden, 'Explorations under the War Department', Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, 9 (1857), 109-16. On the development of steamboat transportation on the Missouri and other western rivers, see Louis C. Hunter, Steamboats on the Western Rivers: An Economic and Technological History (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1949); William E. Lass, A History of Steamboating on the Upper Missouri River (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1962).
37. Mike Foster, Strange Genius: The Life of Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden (Niwot, Colorado, 1994), 46-7.
38. On Hayden's scientific career, see also James G. Cassidy, Ferdinand V. Hayden: Entrepreneur of Science (Lincoln, Nebraska, 2000).
39. Foster (note 9), 49, 51.
40. George P. Merrill, The First One Hundred Years of American Geology (New Haven, Connecticut, 1924), 502-9. See also Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire (note 2) 492-3. For other scientific collectors supported by the American Fur Company in the 1840s and 1850s, including Thaddeus Culbertson (who was half-brother to a leading Company official), see John E. Sunder, The Fur Trade on the Upper Missouri, 1840-1865 (Norman, Oklahoma, 1965), 127-86.
41. George P. Merrill, The First One Hundred Years of American Geology (New Haven, Connecticut, 1924), 502-9. See also Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire (note 2) 492-3. For other scientific collectors supported by the American Fur Company in the 1840s and 1850s, including Thaddeus Culbertson (who was half-brother to a leading Company official), see John E. Sunder, The Fur Trade on the Upper Missouri, 1840-1865 (Norman, Oklahoma, 1965), 127-86.
42. George P. Merrill, The First One Hundred Years of American Geology (New Haven, Connecticut, 1924), 502-9. See also Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire (note 2) 492-3. For other scientific collectors supported by the American Fur Company in the 1840s and 1850s, including Thaddeus Culbertson (who was half-brother to a leading Company official), see John E. Sunder, The Fur Trade on the Upper Missouri, 1840-1865 (Norman, Oklahoma, 1965), 127-86.
43. F. V. Hayden, 'The primordial sandstone of the Rocky Mountains in the Northwestern Territories of the United States', American Journal of Science and Arts, 33 (second series) (1862), 68-79.
44. F. V. Hayden, On the Geology and Natural History of the Upper Missouri (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1862), 5.
45. Richard A. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, (Norman, Oklahoma, 1962) ; Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire (note 2), 430-576.
46. Richard A. Bartlett, Great Surveys of the American West, (Norman, Oklahoma, 1962) ; Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire (note 2), 430-576.
47. Thomas G. Manning, Government in Science: The U.S. Geological Survey, 1867-1894, (Lexington, Kentucky, 1967) ; Henry Nash Smith, 'Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the establishment of the United States Geological Survey', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 34 (1947), 37-58.
48. Thomas G. Manning, Government in Science: The U.S. Geological Survey, 1867-1894, (Lexington, Kentucky, 1967) ; Henry Nash Smith, 'Clarence King, John Wesley Powell, and the establishment of the United States Geological Survey', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 34 (1947), 37-58.
49. Donald Worster, A River Running West: The Life of John Wesley Powell (Oxford, 2001), 119, 149, 156. For an insightful reinterpretation of Powell's career as an agent of central government power, see
50. Scott Kirsch, 'John Wesley Powell and the mapping of the Colorado Plateau, 1869-1879: survey science, geographical solutions, and the economy of environmental values', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 92 (2002), 548-572.
51. Foster (note 9), 171.
52. F. V. Hayden, Final Report of the United States Geological Survey of Nebraska and Portions of the Adjacent Territories (Washington, DC, 1872), 6.
53. Hayden (note 18), 46.
54. Wilkins (note 6), 128, 180.
55. Stephen J. Pyne, Grove Karl Gilbert: A Great Engine of Research (Austin, Texas, 1980), 28. In other words, just as a gently sloping railway line could be depicted in a cross-section showing the changes in elevation along the tracks, so too could a stream bed be represented similarly. Overcoming changes in elevation was a central practical issue for railway engineers in the nineteenth century, who worked against the energy demands of gravity by attempting to minimize track incline through cutting and embanking the ground before laying the tracks, although this expensive work often had to wait until increasing traffic provided enough revenue to justify rebuilding. See Thomas Parke Hughes, 'A technological frontier: the railway', The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy, edited by Bruce Mazlish (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965), 53-73; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley, California, 1986).
56. Stephen J. Pyne, Grove Karl Gilbert: A Great Engine of Research (Austin, Texas, 1980), 28. In other words, just as a gently sloping railway line could be depicted in a cross-section showing the changes in elevation along the tracks, so too could a stream bed be represented similarly. Overcoming changes in elevation was a central practical issue for railway engineers in the nineteenth century, who worked against the energy demands of gravity by attempting to minimize track incline through cutting and embanking the ground before laying the tracks, although this expensive work often had to wait until increasing traffic provided enough revenue to justify rebuilding. See Thomas Parke Hughes, 'A technological frontier: the railway', The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy, edited by Bruce Mazlish (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965), 53-73; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley, California, 1986).
57. Stephen J. Pyne, Grove Karl Gilbert: A Great Engine of Research (Austin, Texas, 1980), 28. In other words, just as a gently sloping railway line could be depicted in a cross-section showing the changes in elevation along the tracks, so too could a stream bed be represented similarly. Overcoming changes in elevation was a central practical issue for railway engineers in the nineteenth century, who worked against the energy demands of gravity by attempting to minimize track incline through cutting and embanking the ground before laying the tracks, although this expensive work often had to wait until increasing traffic provided enough revenue to justify rebuilding. See Thomas Parke Hughes, 'A technological frontier: the railway', The Railroad and the Space Program: An Exploration in Historical Analogy, edited by Bruce Mazlish (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965), 53-73; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley, California, 1986).
58. Pyne (note 21), 95.
59. Grove Karl Gilbert, Field Notebook 1, 1-28, transcribed in Geology of the Henry Mountains, Utah, as Recorded in the Notebooks of G. K. Gilbert, 1875-76, edited by Charles B. Hunt (Boulder, Colorado, 1988).
60. Joseph Ewan, Rocky Mountain Naturalists (Denver, Colorado, 1950), 52, 80.
61. C. C. Parry, 'Botanical observations in southern Utah, in 1874', American Naturalist, 9 (1875), 15.
62. John Wesley Powell, The Exploration of the Colorado River (Chicago, Illinois, 1957 (1875)).
63. Jane Pierce Davidson, The Bone Sharp: The Life of Edward Drinker Cope (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1997), 46, 51-52.
64. Wilbur C. Knight, 'The Wyoming fossil fields expedition of July, 1899', National Geographic Magazine, 11 (1900), 449-65.
65. See also Union Pacific Railroad, Some of Wyoming's Vertebrate Fossils (1899). For useful secondary accounts of the expedition, see
66. Tom Rea, The Excavation and Celebrity of Andrew Carnegie's Dinosaur (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 2001), 62, 105-111
67. ; Elizabeth Noble Shor, Fossils and Flies: The Life of a Compleat Scientist, Samuel Wendell Williston (Norman, Oklahoma, 1971), 143-4.
68. J. B. Hatcher to W. J. Holland, 24 May 1901, Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
69. Albert Perry Brigham, 'History of the excursion', Memorial Volume of the Transcontinental Excursion of 1912 of the American Geographical Society (New York, 1915).
70. Henry C. Cowles and Frederic E. Clements, 'An international phytogeographic excursion in America in 1913: preliminary announcement', Edith S. and Frederic E. Clements Papers, Box 1, Folder 1, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming.
71. John R. Stilgoe, Metropolitan Corridor: Railroads and the American Scene (New Haven, Connecticut, 1983).
72. Worster (note 16), 136.
73. Charles H. Sternberg, The Life of a Fossil Hunter (New York: Holt, 1909), 14.
74. J. A. Allen, The American Bisons, Living and Extinct (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1876).
75. E. L. Greene, 'Rambles of a botanist in Wyoming territory', American Naturalist, 8 (1874), 32-3.
76. Greene (note 36), 33.
77. Ibid., 209.
78. Freeman (note 2).
79. Hayden(note 18), 48, 46.
80. Davidson (note 27), 16.
81. Sternberg (note 34), 16.
82. Freeman (note 2), 64-5.
83. James Macfarlane, An American Geological Railway Guide (New York, 1879).
84. For a later example of science along a railway corridor that covered both botanical and geological observations, see J. S. Newberry, 'Notes on the geology and botany of the country bordering the Northern Pacific Railroad', Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 3 (1884), 242-79.
85. Hazen's most famous tract, Our Barren Lands (1875), is reprinted in Edgar I. Stewart (editor), Penny-an-Acre Empire in the West (Norman, Oklahoma, 1968), 139-83. See also Marvin E. Kroeker, Great Plains Command: William B. Hazen in the Frontier West (Norman, Oklahoma, 1976).
86. Hazen's most famous tract, Our Barren Lands (1875), is reprinted in Edgar I. Stewart (editor), Penny-an-Acre Empire in the West (Norman, Oklahoma, 1968), 139-83. See also Marvin E. Kroeker, Great Plains Command: William B. Hazen in the Frontier West (Norman, Oklahoma, 1976).
87. Hazen's most famous tract, Our Barren Lands (1875), is reprinted in Edgar I. Stewart (editor), Penny-an-Acre Empire in the West (Norman, Oklahoma, 1968), 139-83. See also Marvin E. Kroeker, Great Plains Command: William B. Hazen in the Frontier West (Norman, Oklahoma, 1976).
88. Economic development - especially for agriculture - was a long-standing concern of the railroad companies. For the earliest such efforts in the USA, see Paul Wallace Gates, 'The promotion of agriculture by the Illinois Central Railroad, 1855-1870', Agricultural History, 5 (1931), 57-76; The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1934). For a prime example of railroad development activities from the late nineteenth century in Iowa and Nebraska, see Richard C. Overton, Burlington West: A Colonization History of the Burlington Railroad (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1941). On the continuation and expansion of railroad-sponsored development work, see Roy V. Scott, Railroad Development Programs in the Twentieth Century (Ames, Iowa, 1985).
89. Economic development - especially for agriculture - was a long-standing concern of the railroad companies. For the earliest such efforts in the USA, see Paul Wallace Gates, 'The promotion of agriculture by the Illinois Central Railroad, 1855-1870', Agricultural History, 5 (1931), 57-76; The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1934). For a prime example of railroad development activities from the late nineteenth century in Iowa and Nebraska, see Richard C. Overton, Burlington West: A Colonization History of the Burlington Railroad (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1941). On the continuation and expansion of railroad-sponsored development work, see Roy V. Scott, Railroad Development Programs in the Twentieth Century (Ames, Iowa, 1985).
90. Economic development - especially for agriculture - was a long-standing concern of the railroad companies. For the earliest such efforts in the USA, see Paul Wallace Gates, 'The promotion of agriculture by the Illinois Central Railroad, 1855-1870', Agricultural History, 5 (1931), 57-76; The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1934). For a prime example of railroad development activities from the late nineteenth century in Iowa and Nebraska, see Richard C. Overton, Burlington West: A Colonization History of the Burlington Railroad (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1941). On the continuation and expansion of railroad-sponsored development work, see Roy V. Scott, Railroad Development Programs in the Twentieth Century (Ames, Iowa, 1985).
91. Economic development - especially for agriculture - was a long-standing concern of the railroad companies. For the earliest such efforts in the USA, see Paul Wallace Gates, 'The promotion of agriculture by the Illinois Central Railroad, 1855-1870', Agricultural History, 5 (1931), 57-76; The Illinois Central Railroad and Its Colonization Work (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1934). For a prime example of railroad development activities from the late nineteenth century in Iowa and Nebraska, see Richard C. Overton, Burlington West: A Colonization History of the Burlington Railroad (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1941). On the continuation and expansion of railroad-sponsored development work, see Roy V. Scott, Railroad Development Programs in the Twentieth Century (Ames, Iowa, 1985).
92. Clarence King, 'Paleozoic subdivisions of the 40th parallel', American Journal of Science and Arts, 11 (third series) (1876), 475-82.
93. Wilkins (note 6), 101, 136.
94. Hayden (note 18), 5.
95. Ibid., 51.
96. Ibid., 66.
97. Some notable studies of tourism in the American West include Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York, 1957) ; Hal K. Rothman, Devil's Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth-Century American West (Lawrence, Kansas, 1998); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1989).
98. Some notable studies of tourism in the American West include Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York, 1957) ; Hal K. Rothman, Devil's Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth-Century American West (Lawrence, Kansas, 1998); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1989).
99. Some notable studies of tourism in the American West include Earl Pomeroy, In Search of the Golden West: The Tourist in Western America (New York, 1957) ; Hal K. Rothman, Devil's Bargains: Tourism in the Twentieth-Century American West (Lawrence, Kansas, 1998); and John F. Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1989).
100. Anne Farrar Hyde, An American Vision: Far Western Landscape and National Culture, 1820-1920 (New York, 1990).
101. Henry T. Williams (editor) The Pacific Tourist: Williams' Illustrated Trans-Continental Guide of Travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean (New York, 1876), 1.
102. On the early development of the US national park system, see Richard A. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone (Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1974) ; Stanford E. Demars, The Tourist in Yosemite, 1855-1985 (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1991); Aubrey L. Haines, The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our First National Park, 2nd edn (Niwot, Colorado, 1996) ; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 3rd edn (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1997);
103. On the early development of the US national park system, see Richard A. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone (Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1974) ; Stanford E. Demars, The Tourist in Yosemite, 1855-1985 (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1991); Aubrey L. Haines, The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our First National Park, 2nd edn (Niwot, Colorado, 1996) ; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 3rd edn (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1997);
104. On the early development of the US national park system, see Richard A. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone (Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1974) ; Stanford E. Demars, The Tourist in Yosemite, 1855-1985 (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1991); Aubrey L. Haines, The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our First National Park, 2nd edn (Niwot, Colorado, 1996) ; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 3rd edn (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1997);
105. On the early development of the US national park system, see Richard A. Bartlett, Nature's Yellowstone (Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1974) ; Stanford E. Demars, The Tourist in Yosemite, 1855-1985 (Salt Lake City, Utah, 1991); Aubrey L. Haines, The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our First National Park, 2nd edn (Niwot, Colorado, 1996) ; Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 3rd edn (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1997);
106. Richard West Sellars, Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History (New Haven, Connecticut, 1997).
107. William Irwin, The New Niagara: Tourism, Technology, and the Landscape of Niagara Falls, 1776-1917 (University Park, Pennsylvania, 1996).
108. Alfred Runte, Trains of Discovery: Western Railroads and the National Parks (Flagstaff, Arizona, 1984).
109. For details on the involvement of the US Geological Survey, see Manning (note 15), 151-67.
110. Theo. B. Comstock, 'The Yellowstone National Park', American Naturalist, 8 (1874), 67. Although
111. a southward connection to the Union Pacific continued to be advocated by scientists, such as government geologist Arnold Hague in 1887, Yellowstone Park was not actually reached by a Union Pacific branch line until 1905
112. ; see Maury Klein, Union Pacific: Birth of a Railroad, 1862-1893 (Garden City, New York, 1987), 523.
113. John Wesley Powell, On the Organization of Scientific Work of the General Government: Extracts from Testimony Taken by the Joint Commission of the Senate and House of Representatives (Washington, DC 1885), 193.
114. Powell (note 61), 19, 44.
115. George Bird Grinnell, 'An old-time bone hunt: an account of the expedition undertaken by Prof. O. C. Marsh in 1870 to the then Wild West', Natural History, 19 (1923), 330.
116. W. J. Holland to J. B. Hatcher, 29 May 1901; Geo. B. Harris to W. J. Holland, 30 May 1901; J. B. Hatcher to W. J. Holland, 17 July 1901; W. J. Holland to J. B. Hatcher, 20 July 1901; J. B. Hatcher to W. J. Hølland, 3 May 1904. All letters in Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
117. J. B. Hatcher to C. W. Gilmore, 24 September 1903; J. B. Hatcher to A. Darlow, 30 September 1903. Both in Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
118. A. F. Earling to W. J. Holland, 14 October 1901, Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
119. A. Darlow to W. J. Holland, 7 March 1900, Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
120. J. B. Hatcher to W. J. Holland, 31 March 1900; J. B. Hatcher to W. J. Holland, 7 April 1900. Both in Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
121. W. J. Holland to J. B. Hatcher, 17 November 1903, Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The excessive issuance of
122. W. J. Holland to J. B. Hatcher, 17 November 1903, Hatcher Papers, Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The excessive issuance of passes was a chronic fiscal drain on the railroad companies, who had been trying since at least 1873 to agree collectively to limit them to employees only; they were finally outlawed with the Hepburn Act in 1906, as described by John H. White, 'The railroad pass: perk or plunder?', Railroad History, 182 (2000), 68, 71. The Union Pacific estimated losses of US $20 000 per week in the mid-1880s from pass travel, although most of the company's concern centred on politicians and journalists (scientists are not usually mentioned), whose favour was important enough that railroad companies feared to turn them down; see Klein (note 60), 509.
123. Some histories covering the early development of automobile roads include Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979) ; Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Connecticut, 1979); James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988) ; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991). Few scholars have comparatively treated railroads and automobile roads, although a helpful beginning is given by Stephen B. Stoddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York, 1994).
124. Some histories covering the early development of automobile roads include Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979) ; Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Connecticut, 1979); James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988) ; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991). Few scholars have comparatively treated railroads and automobile roads, although a helpful beginning is given by Stephen B. Stoddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York, 1994).
125. Some histories covering the early development of automobile roads include Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979) ; Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Connecticut, 1979); James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988) ; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991). Few scholars have comparatively treated railroads and automobile roads, although a helpful beginning is given by Stephen B. Stoddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York, 1994).
126. Some histories covering the early development of automobile roads include Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979) ; Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Connecticut, 1979); James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988) ; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991). Few scholars have comparatively treated railroads and automobile roads, although a helpful beginning is given by Stephen B. Stoddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York, 1994).
127. Some histories covering the early development of automobile roads include Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1979) ; Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Connecticut, 1979); James J. Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988) ; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991). Few scholars have comparatively treated railroads and automobile roads, although a helpful beginning is given by Stephen B. Stoddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York, 1994).
128. On the relationships among highways, landscapes and tourism, see David Louter, 'Glaciers and gasoline: the making of a windshield wilderness, 1900-1915', Seeing and Being Seen: Tourism and the American West, edited by David Wrobel (Lawrence, Kansas, 2001) ; Marguerite S. Shaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880-1940 (Washington, DC, 2001); Thomas Zeller, '"The landscape's crown": landscape, perceptions, and modernizing effects of the German autobahn system, 1934 to 1941', Technologies of Landscape: From Reaping to Recycling, edited by David E. Nye (Amherst, Massachusetts, 1999), 218-38.
129. On the relationships among highways, landscapes and tourism, see David Louter, 'Glaciers and gasoline: the making of a windshield wilderness, 1900-1915', Seeing and Being Seen: Tourism and the American West, edited by David Wrobel (Lawrence, Kansas, 2001) ; Marguerite S. Shaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880-1940 (Washington, DC, 2001); Thomas Zeller, '"The landscape's crown": landscape, perceptions, and modernizing effects of the German autobahn system, 1934 to 1941', Technologies of Landscape: From Reaping to Recycling, edited by David E. Nye (Amherst, Massachusetts, 1999), 218-38.
130. On the relationships among highways, landscapes and tourism, see David Louter, 'Glaciers and gasoline: the making of a windshield wilderness, 1900-1915', Seeing and Being Seen: Tourism and the American West, edited by David Wrobel (Lawrence, Kansas, 2001) ; Marguerite S. Shaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880-1940 (Washington, DC, 2001); Thomas Zeller, '"The landscape's crown": landscape, perceptions, and modernizing effects of the German autobahn system, 1934 to 1941', Technologies of Landscape: From Reaping to Recycling, edited by David E. Nye (Amherst, Massachusetts, 1999), 218-38.
131. Robert E. Kohler, Labscapes and Landscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology (Chicago, Illinois, 2002), 114.
132. R. S. Woodward to Frederic E. Clements, 24 September 1917, Edith S. and Frederic E. Clements Papers, Box 1, Folder 1, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming.
133. Aven Nelson to Edwin Payson, 24 July 1916, University of Wyoming, Botany Records, Box 29, Folder 13, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming.
134. W. D. Matthew, 'Early days of fossil Hunting in the High Plains', Natural History, 26 (1926), 454.
135. For an insightful discussion of the relationship between archaeological field work and the establishment of national monuments in the US, see Hal Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (Urbana, Illinois, 1989).
136. T. C. McCluhan, Dream Tracks: The Railroad and the American Indian 1890-1930 (New York, 1985).
137. Neil M. Judd, Archeohgical Observations North of the Rio Colorado (Washington, DC, 1926), 40.
138. Tom Lewis, Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life (New York, 1997), 21.
139. Judd (note 79), 2, 90, 124.
140. Noel Morss, The Ancient Culture of the Fremont River in Utah: Report on the Explorations under the Claflin-Emerson Fund, 1928-29 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1931).
141. Latour (note 1).
142. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1959).
143. Daniel Carey, 'Compiling nature's history: travellers and travel narratives in the early Royal Society', Annals of Science, 54 (1997), 269-92.