Mass mediating the spiritual battle: Pentecostal appropriations of mass mediated violence in Rio De Janeiro

Material Religion

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 358-385

  Oosterbaan, Martijn ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34347301547     PISSN: 17432200     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2752/174322005778054087     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. This article is based upon a year of research in the favela Cantagalo/Pavão-Pavãozinho, Rio de Janeiro. The research is part of the NWO/PIONIER project: Modern Mass Media, Religion and the Imagination of Communities, headed by Birgit Meyer. I wish to thank NWO for the funding of this research, Clara Mafra and Marcus Cardoso for their help in starting the research in Brazil, and Patricia Birman for her support and guidance during my stay. I wish to thank members of the Religion and Media seminar for their comments on the draft and Birgit Meyer and Stephen Hughes in particular for their help and advice Cantagalo/Pavão-Pavãozinho, Rio de Janeiro. The research is part of the NWO/PIONIER project: Modern Mass Media, Religion and the Imagination of Communities, headed by Birgit Meyer. I wish to thank NWO for the funding of this research, Clara Mafra and Marcus Cardoso for their help in starting the research in Brazil, and Patricia Birman for her support and guidance during my stay. I wish to thank members of the Religion and Media seminar for their comments on the draft and Birgit Meyer and Stephen Hughes in particular for their help and advice
2. Bishop (Bispo) is a rank in the clerical hierarchy of the neo-Pentecostal church Igreja Universal. church Igreja Universal
3. I recorded his words during my fieldwork in the favela. Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus can be translated as Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, hereafter shortened to Igreja Universal. do Reino de Deus can be translated as "Universal Church of the Kingdom of God," hereafter shortened to Igreja Universal
4. Both evangélico and crente (believer) are commonly used to describe someone who frequents a Protestant/Pentecostal church in Brazil. describe someone who frequents a Protestant/Pentecostal church in Brazil
5. According to the IBGE, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatlstica - IBGE, Censos Demogáficos 1991 e 2000, at present the majority of the evangélicos are made up of Pentecostal Christians. Of the 26 million evangélicos, 17.5 million can be considered Pentecostal. Of the Pentecostal Churches the Assembléia de Deus can be considered the largest with roughly 8.4 million people, and the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus the third largest Pentecostal Church with 2.1 million people. According to the census of 2000, Brazil has a population of roughly 170 million. In the 1970s, 92 percent of the people were Catholic. This percentage decreased during the 1980s and from 1991 to 2000 it went down rapidly, from 83.8 percent in 1991 till 73.8 percent in 2000. The evangelical Churches grew with 70 percent, comprising 9 percent of the total Brazilian population in 1991 and 15.4 percent in 2000. According to the evangelical magazine Enfoque Gospel IBGE, Censos Demogáficos 1991 e 2000, at present the majority of the evangélicos are made up of Pentecostal Christians. Of the 26 million evangélicos, 17.5 million can be considered Pentecostal. Of the Pentecostal Churches the Assembléia de Deus can be considered the largest with roughly 8.4 million people, and the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus the third largest Pentecostal Church with 2.1 million people. According to the census of 2000, Brazil has a population of roughly 170 million. In the 1970s, 92 percent of the people were Catholic. This percentage decreased during the 1980s and from 1991 to 2000 it went down rapidly, from 83.8 percent in 1991 till 73.8 percent in 2000. The evangelical Churches grew with 70 percent, comprising 9 percent of the total Brazilian population in 1991 and 15.4 percent in 2000. According to the evangelical magazine Enfoque Gospel, Rio de Janeiro-population 5.9 million in 2000 - was 21.1 percent evangélico in 2000
6. The Igrjea Universal has deployed a distinctive Catholic language for its organization. For example, high ranked pastors are called Bishops and large churches are called cathedrals organization. For example, high ranked pastors are called Bishops and large churches are called cathedrals
7. For further reading on the mass media empire of the Igreja Universal see Fonseca (1997, 2003)
8. See also Kramer 2001 a. One of the reasons why the Igreja Universal has to spread its prosperity gospel successfully according to Kramer is that the form of this mediation provides linkages to broad religious and secular domains of meaning in urban Brazil (e.g., Catholicism, Afro-Brazilian religions, television and mass media), accounting for the mass appeal of this neo-Pentecostal framing of spiritual concerns (Kramer 2001, 43). been able to spread its prosperity gospel successfully according to Kramer is that "the form of this mediation provides linkages to broad religious and secular domains of meaning in urban Brazil (e.g., Catholicism, Afro-Brazilian religions, television and mass media), accounting for the mass appeal of this neo-Pentecostal framing of spiritual concerns" (Kramer 2001, 43)
9. The complete title of the newspaper is Folha Universal - A Journal in the service of God. In the year of its ten-year existence the Folha Universal also presented a logo with the text: Ten years journalism with faith and information on the front page. Figure 4 for an example of the front page. service of God. In the year of its ten-year existence the Folha Universal also presented a logo with the text: "Ten years journalism with faith and information" on the front page. See Figure 4 for an example of the front page
10. My attempt at unraveling images and narratives of violence represented in the Folha Universal are in line with a method of intertextual analysis put forward by Fairclough (1995): Intertextual analysis aims to unravel the various genres and discourses - often, in creative discourse practice, a highly complex mixture - which are articulated together in the text. the Folha Universal are in line with a method of intertextual analysis put forward by Fairclough (1995): "Intertextual analysis aims to unravel the various genres and discourses - often, in creative discourse practice, a highly complex mixture - which are articulated together in the text."
11. When I refer to spectacular violence I generally mean images and narratives of violent events that are represented to the audience in the form of a spectacle, a show. Yet, the concept spectacular also refers to some of the critical remarks of writers such as Baudrillard and Debord who have called attention to the fact that mass media, and especially television, offer the illusion of an unmediated appropriation of the social world Stevenson 1995, 159, whereas in fact these mass media participate in the production of what is generally considered as the real narratives of violent events that are represented to the audience in the form of a spectacle - a show. Yet, the concept spectacular also refers to some of the critical remarks of writers such as Baudrillard and Debord who have called attention to the fact that mass media, and especially television, "offer the illusion of an unmediated appropriation of the social world" (Stevenson 1995, 159), whereas in fact these mass media participate in the production of what is generally considered as "the real."
12. Historically the monopolization of the legitimate use of force is understood as one of the key functions of the modern-nation state Weber 1968, In the critical news media the Brazilian state is heavily criticized for the lack of control of urban violence understood as one of the key functions of the modern-nation state (Weber 1968). In the critical news media the Brazilian state is heavily criticized for the lack of control of urban violence
13. This enforces the demonization of these practices in Brazilian society. Birman and Lehmann 1999; Kramer 2001 b; Montes 1998 See also Birman and Lehmann 1999; Kramer 2001 b; Montes 1998
14. Encostar literally means "to lean on." Encostas could be spiritual entities that lean on people. translated as spiritual entities that "lean" on people
15. Culto is the Brazilian term for "church service." Sessão descarrego can be translated as unloading session. de descarrego can be translated as "unloading session."
16. They try to influence the political affinities of their members in cultos and by means of their mass media. Fonseca (1998) and Gonrado (2001). Marcelo Crivella was one of the three elected senators for the state of Rio de Janeiro to take position among the total of eighty-one senators in Brasilia. Fifty-five politicians that are affiliated to the Igreja Universal and to other Pentecostal churches take seat in the Congresso Nacional - the Brazilian chamber of deputies. Within the Congresso Nacional these fifty-five evangelical deputies form what is called the bancada evangélica, a Protestant/ Pentecostal coalition in the Congresso Nacional. and by means of their mass media. See also Fonseca (1998) and Gonrado (2001). Marcelo Crivella was one of the three elected senators for the state of Rio de Janeiro to take position among the total of eighty-one senators in Brasilia. Fifty-five politicians that are affiliated to the Igreja Universal and to other Pentecostal churches take seat in the Congresso Nacional - the Brazilian chamber of deputies. Within the Congresso Nacional these fifty-five evangelical deputies form what is called the bancada evangélica, a Protestant/ Pentecostal coalition in the Congresso Nacional
17. Kramer takes up this notion from Coleman (2000, 150 cited in Kramer 2005.) 2005.)
18. During my fieldwork in Rio de Janerio I encountered many people who spoke of the pastors and Bishops of the Igreja Universal as exemplary men of faith, whose careers and public performances could be taken as guidelines for the appropriate behavior of the pastors and Bishops of the Igreja Universal as exemplary men of faith, whose careers and public performances could be taken as guidelines for the appropriate behavior
19. On one hand, the fame of some Bishops is like that of other religious celebrities of Brazil, for example Marcello Rossi (D'abreu 2002). On the other, even though the repeated display of bishops as multitalented men of faith has made them famous, their iconicity remains ambivalent. Considering the iconophobia (Morgan 1998) inherent in the Pentecostal doctrines of the Igreja Universal the bishops are presented as examples rather than as objects of devotion. celebrities of Brazil, for example Marcello Rossi (D'abreu 2002). On the other, even though the repeated display of bishops as multitalented men of faith has made them famous, their iconicity remains ambivalent. Considering the "iconophobia" (Morgan 1998) inherent in the Pentecostal doctrines of the Igreja Universal the bishops are presented as "examples" rather than as objects of devotion
20. Obreiros are the voluntary workers of the Church. They provide assistance to the pastor during the culto. Obreiro aprovado can be translated as The approved Obreiro to the pastor during the culto. Obreiro aprovado can be translated as "The approved Obreiro."
21. For a good discussion on the discursive formations of publics see Michael Warner (2002)
22. This is also what Birman convincingly argues in relation to his social project, Projeto Nordeste project, Projeto Nordeste
23. On the political pamphlet he is not addressed as bishop but simply as Marcelo Crivella. This is indicative of the form of the political pamphlet. Many politicians in Brazil are personalized. President F.H. Cardoso was often simply addressed as Fernando Henrique (F.H.) and the same can be said about the current president: Lula. Marcelo Crivella. This is indicative of the form of the political pamphlet. Many politicians in Brazil are "personalized." President F.H. Cardoso was often simply addressed as Fernando Henrique (F.H.) and the same can be said about the current president: "Lula."
24. Macumba is the word used when evangélicos refer to Afro-Brazilian religious practices in Rio de Janeiro
25. See also Habermas (1989) and Garnham (1992) for a discussion on the journalism in the public sphere. function of journalism in the public sphere
26. Stewart Hoover argues that in the context of North American journalism this is also because religious practice and organization is changing itself. Hoover 1998, 35 this is also because religious practice and organization is changing itself. Hoover (1998, 35)
27. Multivocality here refers to the fact that the texts may have multiple meanings, that are capable of eliciting more than one interpretation (Schmalzbauer 2002, 171). meanings, "that are capable of eliciting more than one interpretation" (Schmalzbauer 2002, 171)
28. One of the three languages Schmalzbauer distinguishes as multivocal is that of justice and peace. The language of peace and justice is an articulation of ethically engaged journalism and religious activism. This categorization fits well with the social-religious language in the Folha Universal. Sá Martino (2002). that of "justice and peace." The language of peace and justice is an articulation of ethically engaged journalism and religious activism. This categorization fits well with the social-religious language in the Folha Universal. See also Sá Martino (2002)
29. See also Asad (1993). Sá Martino presents believers and categories, with their own distinct habitus discontinuity on the part of the people who frequent the churches and little room for continuity of different mediated signs and symbols non-believers as given categories, with their own distinct habitus. Such a perspective leaves very little room for change, ambivalence and discontinuity on the part of the people who frequent the churches and little room for continuity of different mediated signs and symbols
30. Bishop Alceu Nieckarz cited in Folha Universal (June 16-22, 2002) - translation mine. translation mine
31. Cariocas are the inhabitants of Rio de Janeiro
32. Coimbra (2001); Jovchelovitch (2000); Leite (1997); Rondelli (1995)
33. Márcia Leite talks specifically about "Operação when military forces occupied several morros in Rio de Janeiro, the civil movements that followed and the way the press represented the events in the city. Coimbra (2001). Rio" when military forces occupied several morros in Rio de Janeiro, the civil movements that followed and the way the press represented the events in the city. See also Coimbra (2001)
34. Armed men who are part of the criminal organizations involved with drug trafficking are called so/dados, soldiers, by the organizations themselves trafficking are called so/dados - soldiers - by the organizations themselves
35. A popular newspaper like O Povo could be an example of a Brazilian tabloid. tabloid
36. During the year 2002 I collected the Jornal do Brasil or O Globo on a daily basis. I base my generalizations on the representation of violence on that year, taking into account that Jovchelovitch (2000) and Coimbra (2001) have come up with similar conclusions as I have. daily basis. I base my generalizations on the representation of violence on that year, taking into account that Jovchelovitch (2000) and Coimbra (2001) have come up with similar conclusions as I have
37. O Globo June 15, 2002 and June 17,2002
38. Jornal do Brasil July 6, 2002
39. The opening quotation of this essay - of the young member of the Igreja Universal, refers to the murder of prisoners by Beira-Mar Universal - refers to the murder of prisoners by Beira-Mar
40. For further reading on the social-political discourse of the Igreja Universal, specifically the way they emphasize the Biblical character of social policy, Kramer (2001). Universal, specifically the way they emphasize the Biblical character of social policy, see also Kramer (2001)
41. Folha Universal, January 5-11, 2003
42. Andrew Toison describes the media technique of montage in the following manner: as a type of syntagmatic structure, montage works through juxtaposition. These juxtapositions may be emphasizing conceptual similarities or contrasts ... but the crucial point is that the connections between the signs in a montage structure are implicit, not explicit. A montage therefore involves the reader/viewer in an active process of working out the logic (if any) implicit in the interconnections (Toison 1996, 38). manner: "as a type of syntagmatic structure, montage works through juxtaposition. These juxtapositions may be emphasizing conceptual similarities or contrasts ... but the crucial point is that the connections between the signs in a montage structure are implicit, not explicit. A montage therefore involves the reader/viewer in an active process of working out the logic (if any) implicit in the interconnections" (Toison 1996, 38)
43. Folha Universal, January 5-11, 2003, translation mine
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