Predation by killer whales (Orcinus orca) and the evolution of whistle loss and narrow-band high frequency clicks in odontocetes

Journal of Evolutionary Biology

Volumn 20, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 1439-1458

  Morisaka, T ^a   Connor, R C ^b  

^a KYOTO UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS DARTMOUTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Acoustic; Cephalorhynchid; Communication; Convergence; Echolocation; Killer whale; Phocoenid; Porpoise; Predation; Selection

Indexed keywords

CONCEALMENT BEHAVIOR; ECHOLOCATION; EVOLUTION; PREDATION; PREDATION RISK; SELECTION; SIGNALING; WHALE;

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; ECHOLOCATION; EVOLUTION; GENETICS; KILLER WHALE; PHYLOGENY; PHYSIOLOGY; PREDATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; VOCALIZATION;

ANIMALS; ECHOLOCATION; EVOLUTION; PHYLOGENY; PREDATORY BEHAVIOR; VOCALIZATION, ANIMAL; WHALE, KILLER;

CEPHALORHYNCHUS; CETACEA; DELPHINIDAE; KOGIA; KOGIA BREVICEPS; KOGIIDAE; ODONTOCETI; ORCINUS ORCA; PHOCOENIDAE; PHYSETERIDAE; PONTOPORIIDAE;

EID: 34250778268     PISSN: 1010061X     EISSN: 14209101     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01336.x     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Acevedo-Gutiérrez, A. 2002. Group behavior. In : Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (W. F. Perrin, B. Würsig J. G. M. Thewissen, eds pp. 537 544. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
2. Andersen, S.H. Amundin, M. 1976. Possible predator-related adaptation of sound production and hearing in the Harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). Aquat. Mamm. 4 : 56 57.
3. Andersen, S.H. Pilleri, G. 1970. Audible sound production in captive Platanista gangetica. Invest. Cetacea 2 : 83 86.
4. Arnason, U., Gullberg, A. Janke, A. 2004. Mitogenomic analysis provide new insights into cetacean origin and evolution. Gene 333 : 27 34.
5. Au, W.W.L. 1993. The Sonar of Dolphins. Springer, New York.
6. Au, W.W.L. 1997. Echolocation in dolphins with a dolphin-bat comparison. Bioacoust 8 : 137 162.
7. Au, W.W.L. 2000. Echolocation in dolphins. In : Hearing by Whales and Dolphins (W. W. L. Au, A. N. Popper R. R. Fay, eds pp. 364 408. Springer-Verlag, New York.
8. Au, W.W.L. 2002. Echolocation. In : Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (W. F. Perrin, B. Wursig J. G. M. Thewissen, eds pp. 358 367. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
9. Au, W.W.L. Herzing, D.L. 2003. Echolocation signals of wild Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 113 : 598 604.
10. Au, W.W.L., Würsig, B. 2004. Echolocation signals of dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) in Kaikoura, New Zealand. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 115 : 2307 2313.
11. Au, W.W.L., Pawloski, J.L., Nachtigall, P.E., Blonz, M. Gisner, R.C. 1995. Echolocation signals and transmission beam pattern of a false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 98 : 51 59.
12. Au, W.W.L., Kastelein, R.A., Rippe, T. Schooneman, N.M. 1999. Transmission beam pattern and echolocation signals of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106 : 3699 3705.
13. Au, W.W.L., Ford, J.K.B., Horne, J.K. Newman-Allman, K.A. 2004. Echolocation signals of free-ranging killer whales (Orcinus orca) and modelling of foraging for Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 115 : 901 909.
14. Azevedo, A.F. Simão, S.M. 2002. Whistles produced by marine tucuxi dolphins (Sotalia fluviatilis) in Guanabera Bay, southeastern Brazil. Aquat. Mamm. 28 : 261 266.
15. Barnes, L.G. 2002. Delphinoids, evolution of the modern families. In : Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (W. F. Perrin, B. Würsig J. G. M. Thewissen, eds pp. 314 316, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
16. Barrett-Lennard, L.G., Ford, J.K.B. Heise, K.A. 1996. The mixed blessing of echolocation: differences in sonar use by fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales. Anim. Behav. 51 : 553 565.
17. Barros, N.B. 1993. Feeding ecology and foraging strategies of bottlenose dolphins on the central east coast of Florida. PhD dissertation. University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL. 328 pp.
18. Barros, N.B. Odell, D.K. 1990. Food habits of bottlenose dolphins in the Southeastern United States. In : The Bottlenose Dolphin (S. Leatherwood R. R. Reeves, eds pp. 309 328. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
19. Barros, N.B. Wells, R.S. 1998. Prey and feeding patterns of resident bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Sarasota Bay, Florida. J. Mamm. 79 : 1045 1059.
20. Bazúa-Durán, C. Au, W.W.L. 2004. Geographic variations in the whistles of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) of the Main Hawai'ian Islands. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 116 : 3757 3769.
21. Berta, A. Sumich, J.L. 1999. Marine Mammals: Evolutionary Biology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
22. Bianucci, G. Landini, W. 2006. Killer sperm whale: a new basal physeteroid (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Late Miocene of Italy. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 148 : 103 131.
23. Busnel, R.-G., Dziedzic, A. Alcuri, G. 1974. Études préliminaires de signaux acoustiques du Pontoporia blainvillei Gervais et d'Orbigny (Cetacea, Platanistidae). Mammalia 38 : 449 459.
24. Caldwell, D.K. Caldwell, M.C. 1971a. Sounds produced by two rare cetaceans stranded in Florida. Cetology 5 : 1 6.
25. Caldwell, M.C. Caldwell, D.K. 1971b. Statistical evidence for individual signature whistles in Pacific whitesided dolphins, Lagenorhynchus obliquidens. Cetology 3 : 1 9.
26. Cassens, I., Vicario, S., Waddell, V.G., Balchowsky, H., Van Belle, D., Wang, D., Chen, F., Mohan, R.S.L., Simoes-Lopes, P.C., Bastida, R., Meyer, A., Stanhope, M.J. Milinkovitch, M.C. 2000. Independent adaptation to riverine habitats allowed survival of ancient cetacean lineages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97 : 11343 11347.
27. Cassens, I., Van Waerebeek, K., Best, P.B., Crespo, E.A., Reyes, J. Milinkovitch, M.C. 2003. The phylogeography of dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus): a critical examination of network methods and rooting procedures. Mol. Ecol. 12 : 1781 1792.
28. Clarke, M.R. 2003. Production and control of sound by the small sperm whales, Kogia breviceps and K. sima and their implications for other Cetacea. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 83 : 241 263.
29. Corkeron, P.J. Connor, R.C. 1999. Why do baleen whales migrate Mar. Mamm. Sci. 15 : 1228 1245.
30. Corkeron, P.J. Van Parijs, S.M. 2001. Vocalizations of eastern Australian Risso's dolphins, Grampus griseus. Can. J. Zool. 79 : 160 164.
31. Cranford, T.W. 1992. Directional asymmetry in odontocetes. Am. Zool. 32 : 140.
32. Cranford, T.W., Amundin, M. Norris, K.S. 1996. Functional morphology and homology in the Odontoceti nasal complex: implications for sound generation. J. Morphol. 228 : 223 285.
33. Curio, E. 1976. The Ethology of Predation. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
34. Dawkins, R. Krebs, J.R. 1979. Arms races between and within species. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 205 : 489 511.
35. Dawson, S.M. 1988. The high frequency sounds of free-ranging Hector's dolphins, Cephalorhynchus hectori. Rep. Int. Whal. Commn. Special Issue 9 : 339 344.
36. Dawson, S.M. 1991. Clicks and communication: the behavioural and social contexts of Hector's dolphin vocalizations. Ethology 88 : 265 276.
37. Dawson, S.M. Thorpe, W. 1990. A quantitative analysis of the sounds of Hector's dolphin. Ethology 86 : 131 145.
38. Dawson, S., Barlow, J. Ljungblad, D. 1998. Sounds recorded from Baird's beaked whale, Berardius bairdii. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 14 : 335 344.
39. Deecke, V.B., Ford, J.K.B. Slater, P.J.B. 2005. The vocal behaviour of mammal-eating killer whales: communication with costly calls. Anim. Behav. 69 : 395 405.
40. Dziedzic, A. De Buffrenil, V. 1989. Acoustic signals of the Commerson's dolphin, Cephalorhynchus commersonii, in the Kerguelen Islands. J. Mamm. 70 : 449 452.
41. Erber, C. Simão, S.M. 2004. Analysis of whistles produced by the Tucuxi Dolphin Sotalia fluviatilis from Sepetiba Bay, Brazil. An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 76 : 381 385.
42. Evans, W.E. 1967. Vocalization among marine mammals. In : Marine Bio-Acoustics, Vol. II (W. N. Tavolga, ed pp. 159 186. Pergamon, Oxford.
43. Evans, W.E. 1973. Echolocation by marine delphinids and one species of fresh-water dolphin. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 54 : 191 199.
44. Evans, W.E. Awbrey, F.T. 1988. Natural history aspects of marine mammal echolocation: feeding strategies and habitat. In : Animal Sonar: Processes and Performance (P. E. Nachtigall P. E. B. Moore, eds pp. 521 534. Plenum Press, New York.
45. Fajardo-Mellor, L., Berta, A., Brownell, R.L. Jr., Boy, C.C. Goodall, R.N.P. 2006. The phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of true porpoises (Mammalia: Phoccenidae) based on morphological data. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 22 : 910 932.
46. Ford, J.K.B. 1989. Acoustic behaviour of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Can. J. Zool. 67 : 727 745.
47. Ford, J.K.B. Fisher, H.D. 1978. Underwater acoustic signals of the narwhal (Monodon monoceros). Can. J. Zool. 56 : 552 560.
48. Gannon, D.P. 2003. Behavioral ecology of an acoustically mediated predator-prey system: bottlenose dolphins and sciaenid fishes. PhD dissertation. Duke University, Durham, NC : 244 pp.
49. Gannon, D.P. Waples, D.M. 2004. Diets of coastal bottlenose dolphins from the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast differ by habitat. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 20 : 527 545.
50. Gannon, D.P., Barros, N.B., Nowacek, D.P., Read, A.J., Waples, D.M. Wells, R.S. 2005. Prey detection by bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus: an experimental test of the passive listening hypothesis. Anim. Behav. 69 : 709 720.
51. Gygax, L. 2002a. Evolution of group size in the dolphins and porpoises: interspecific consistency of intraspecific patterns. Behav. Ecol. 13 : 583 590.
52. Gygax, L. 2002b. Evolution of group size in the superfamily Delphinoidea (Delphinidae, Phocoenidae and Monodontidae): a quantitative comparative analysis. Mamm. Rev. 32 : 295 314.
53. Hamilton, H., Caballero, S., Collins, A.G. Brownell, R.L. Jr. 2001. Evolution of river dolphins. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268 : 549 558.
54. Harlin-Cognato, A.D. Honeycutt, R.L. 2006. Multi-locus phylogeny of dolphins in the subfamily Lissodelphininae: character synergy improves phylogenetic resolution. BMC Evol. Biol. 6 : 87.
55. Haskell, D.G. 1999. The effect of predation on begging-call evolution in nestling wood warblers. Anim. Behav. 57 : 893 901.
56. Herald, E.S., Brownell, R.L. Jr., Frye, F.L., Morris, E.J., Evans, W.E. Scott, A.B. 1969. Blind river dolphin: first side-swimming cetacean. Science 166 : 1408 1410.
57. Herman, L.M. Tavolga, W.N. 1980. The communication systems of cetaceans. In : Cetacean Behavior: Mechanisms and Functions (L. M. Herman, ed pp. 149 209. Wiley Interscience, New York.
58. Hooker, S.K. Whitehead, H. 2002. Click characteristics of northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus). Mar. Mamm. Sci. 18 : 69 80.
59. Ichishima, H. 2005. A re-evaluation of some Japanese cetacean fossils. Mem. Fukui Pref. Dinosaur Mus 4 : 1 20 (Japanese with English abstract).
60. Ichishima, H. Kimura, M. 2005. Haborophocoena toyoshimai, a new early Pliocene porpoise (Cetacea; Phocoenidae) from Hokkaido, Japan. J. Vert. Palent. 25 : 655 664.
61. Janik, V.M. 2000. Source levels and the estimated active space of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) whistles in the Moray Firth, Scotland. J. Comp. Physiol. A. 186 : 673 680.
62. Janik, V.M. Slater, P.J.B. 1998. Context-specific use suggests that bottlenose dolphin signature whistles are cohesion calls. Anim. Behav. 56 : 829 838.
63. Jefferson, T.A., Stacey, P.J. Baird, R.W. 1991. A review of killer whale interactions with other marine mammals: predation to co-existence. Mamm. Rev. 21 : 151 180.
64. Jing, X., Xiao, Y. Jing, R. 1981. Acoustic signals and acoustic behaviour of Chinese river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer). Sci. Sin. 24 : 407 415.
65. Johnson, M. Madsen, P.T., Zimmer, W.M.X., Aguilar-De Soto, N. Tyack, P.L. 2004. Beaked whales echolocate on prey. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B (Suppl.) 271 : S383 S386.
66. Kamminga, C., Wiersma, H. Dudok Van Heel, W.H. 1983. Investigations on cetacean sonar. VI. Sonar sounds from Orcaella brevirostris, of the Mahakam river, East Kalimantan, Indonesia; first description of acoustic behavior. Aquat. Mamm. 10 : 83 95.
67. Kamminga, C., Kataoka, T. Engelsma, F.J. 1986. Investigations on Cetacean Sonar VII: underwater sounds of Neophacaena phocaenoides of the Japanese coastal population. Aquat. Mamm. 12 : 52 60.
68. Kamminga, C., van Hove, M.T., Engelsma, F.J. Terry, R.P. 1993. Investigations on Cetacean Sonar X: a comparative analysis of underwater echolocation clicks of Inia spp. and Sotalia spp. Aquat. Mamm. 19 : 31 43.
69. Kamminga, C., Cohen Stuart, A.B. Silber, G.K. 1996. Investigations on Cetacean Sonar XI: intrinsic comparison of the wave shapes of some members of the Phocoenidae family. Aquat. Mamm. 22 : 45 55.
70. Kastelein, R.A., Bunskoek, P., Hagedoorn, M., Au, W.W.L. Haa, D.D. 2002. Audiogram of a harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) measured with narrow-band frequency-modulated signals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 112 : 334 344.
71. Ketten, D.R. 2000. Cetacean ears. In : Hearing by Whales and Dolphins (W. W. L. Au, A. N. Popper R. R. Fay, eds) pp. 43 108. Springer, New York.
72. Klump, G.M., Kretzschmar, E. Curio, E. 1986. The hearing of an avian predator and its avian prey. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 18 : 317 323.
73. Lammers, M.O. Au, W.W.L. 2003. Directionality in the whistles of Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris): A signal feature to cue direction of movement Mar. Mamm. Sci. 19 : 249 264.
74. Leatherwood, S. Walker, W.A. 1979. The northern right whale dolphin Lissodelphis borealis Peale in the eastern north Pacific. In : Behavior of Marine Animals Vol. 3: Cetaceans (H. E. Winn B. L. Olla, eds pp. 85 117. Plenum Press, New York.
75. Leatherwood, S., Jefferson, T.A., Norris, J.C., Stevens, W.E., Hansen, L.J. Mullin, K.D. 1993. Occurrence and sounds of Fraser's dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei) in the Gulf of Mexico. Texas J. Sci. 45 : 349 354.
76. LeDuc, R.G., Perrin, W.F. Dizon, A.E. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships among the delphinid cetaceans based on full cytochrome b sequences. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 15 : 619 648.
77. Lilly, J.C. Miller, A.M. 1961. Sounds emitted by the bottlenosed dolphin. Science 133 : 1689 1693.
78. Lopez, J.C. Lopez, D. 1985. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) of Patagonia, and their behaviour of intentional stranding while hunting nearshore. J. Mammal. 66 : 181 183.
79. Luczkovich, J.J., Daniel, H.J. III., Hutchinson, M., Jenkins, T., Johnson, S.E., Pullinger, R.C. Sprague, M.W. 2000. Sounds of sex and death in the sea: bottlenose dolphin whistles suppress mating choruses of silver perch. Bioacoust 10 : 323 334.
80. Lynn, S.K. Reiss, D.L. 1992. Pulse sequence and whistle production by two captive beaked whales, Mesoplodon species. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 8 : 299 305.
81. Møhl, B. Andersen, S. 1973. Echolocation: high-frequency component in the click of the Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena ph. L.). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 54 : 1368 1372.
82. Møhl, B., Wahlberg, M., Madsen, P.T., Heerfordt, A. Lund, A. 2003. The monopulsed nature of sperm whale clicks. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 114 : 1143 1154.
83. Mackay, R.S. Liaw, C. 1981. Dolphin vocalization mechanisms. Science 212 : 676 678.
84. Madsen, P.T., Wahlberg, M. Møhl, B. 2002. Male sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) acoustics in a high-latitude habitat: implications for echolocation and communication. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 53 : 31 41.
85. Madsen, P.T., Kerr, I. Payne, R. 2004a. Source parameter estimates of echolocation clicks from wild pygmy killer whales (Feresa attenuata) (L). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 116 : 1909 1912.
86. Madsen, P.T., Kerr, I. Payne, R. 2004b. Echolocation clicks of two free-ranging, oceanic delphinids with different food preferences: false killer whales Pseudorca crassidens and Risso's dolphins Grampus griseus. J. Exp. Biol. 207 : 1811 1823.
87. Madsen, P.T., Carder, D.A., Bedholm, K. Ridgway, S.H. 2005a. Porpoise clicks from a sperm whale nose - convergent evolution of 130 kHz pulses in toothed whale sonars Bioacoust 15 : 195 206.
88. Madsen, P.T., Johnson, M., Aguilar de Soto, N., Zimmer, W.M.X. Tyack, P.L. 2005b. Biosonar performance of foraging beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris). J. Exp. Biol. 208 : 181 194.
89. Mann, D.A., Lu, Z. Popper, A.N. 1997. A clupeid fish can detect ultrasound. Nature 389 : 341.
90. Mann, D.A., Lu, Z., Hastings, M.C. Popper, A.N. 1998. Detection of ultrasonic tones and simulated dolphin echolocation clicks by a teleost fish, the American shad (Alosa sapidissima). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 104 : 562 568.
91. Marler, P. 1955. Characteristics of some animal calls. Nature 176 : 6 8.
92. Martin, A.R. 1990. Whales and Dolphins (Japanese translation). Salamander Books Ltd, London.
93. Matthews, J.N., Rendell, L.E., Gordon, J.C.D. Macdonald, D.W. 1999. A review of frequency and time parameters of cetacean tonal calls. Bioacoust 10 : 47 71.
94. May-Collado, L. Agnarsson, I. 2006. Cytochrome b and Bayesian inference of whale phylogeny. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 38 : 344 354.
95. McAlpine, D.F. 2002. Pygmy and dwarf sperm whales. In : Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (W. F. Perrin, B. Würsig J. G. M. Thewissen, eds pp. 1007 1009. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
96. Mead, J.G. Potter, C.W. 1990. Natural history of bottlenose dolphins along the central Atlantic coast of the United States. In : The Bottlenose Dolphin (S. Leatherwood R. R. Reeves, eds pp. 165 198. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
97. Miller, L.A., Pristed, J., Møhl, B. Surlykke, A. 1995. The click-sounds of Narwhals (Monodon monoceros) in Inglefield Bay, Northwest Greenland. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 11 : 491 502.
98. Miyazaki, N. Shikano, C. 1997. Preliminary study on comparative skull morphology and vertebral formula among the six species of the genus Lagenorhynchus (Cetacea: Delphinidae). Mammalia 61 : 573 587.
99. Mizue, K., Nishiwaki, M. Takemura, A. 1971. The underwater sound of Ganges river dolphins (Platanista gangetica). Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 23 : 123 128.
100. Moore, S.E. Ridgway, S.H. 1995. Whistles produced by common dolphins from the Southern California Bight. Aquat. Mamm. 21 : 55 63.
101. Morisaka, T. 2005. Restricted design of the communication sounds in toothed whales (Odontoceti). PhD dissertation. Kyoto University, Kyoto.
102. Morisaka, T., Shinohara, M., Nakahara, F. Akamatsu, T. 2005. Geographic variations in the whistles among three Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus populations in Japan. Fish. Sci. 71 : 568 576.
103. de Muizon, C. 2002. River dolphins, evolutionary history. In : Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals (W. F. Perrin, B. Würsig J. G. M. Thewissen, eds. pp. 1043 1049. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
104. Mullin, K.D., Higgins, L.V., Jefferson, T.A. Hansen, L.J. 1994. Sightings of the Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene) in the Gulf of Mexico. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 10 : 464 470.
105. Nakamura, K. 1999. A functional and morphological study of clicks in odontocetes: Physical characteristics and structure of sound source. PhD dissertation. Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, Japan (in Japanese).
106. Nakamura, K. Akamatsu, T. 2004. Comparison of click characteristics among odontocete species. In : Echolocation in Bats and Dolphins (J. A. Thomas, C. F. Moss M. Vater, eds pp. 36 40. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
107. Nakasai, K. Takemura, A. 1975. Studies on the Underwater Sound - VI. On the underwater calls of fresh water dolphins in South America. Bull. Fac. Fish. Nagasaki. Univ. 40 : 7 13.
108. Nikaido, M., Matsuno, F., Hamilton, H., Brownell, R.L. Jr., Ying, C., Wang, D., Zhu, Z., Shedlock, A.M., Fordyce, R.E., Hasegawa, M. Okada, N. 2001. Retroposon analysis of major cetacean lineages: The monophyly of toothed whales and the paraphyly of river dolphins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98 : 7384 7389.
109. Nishida, S., Pastene, L.A., Goto, M. Koike, H. 2003. SRY gene structure and phylogeny in the cetacean species. Mamm. Study 28 : 57 66.
110. Oswald, J.N., Barlow, J. Norris, T.F. 2003a. Acoustic identification of nine delphinid species in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 19 : 20 37.
111. Oswald, J.N., Rankin, S. Barlow, J. 2003b. To Whistle of Not to Whistle 15th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, Greensboro, DC, 14-19 December 2003.
112. Philips, J.D., Nachtigall, P.E., Au, W.W.L., Pawloski, J.L. Roitblat, H.L. 2003. Echolocation in the Risso's dolphin, Grampus griseus. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 113 : 605 616.
113. Pichler, F.B., Robineau, D., Goodall, R.N.P., Me, M.A., Olivarría, C. Baker, C.S. 2001. Origin and radiation of southern hemisphere coastal dolphins (genus Cephalorhynchus). Mol. Ecol. 10 : 2215 2223.
114. Pilleri, G. 1988. Pre- and post-Messinian Cetacea in the Mediterranean Tethys and the Messinian 'salinity crisis'. In : Contributions to the Paleontology of Some Tethyan Cetacea and Sirenia (Mammalia) (G. Pilleri, ed. pp. 19 40. Brain Anatomy Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
115. Pilleri, G., Kraus, C. Gihr, M. 1971. Physical analysis of the sounds emitted by Platanista indi. Invest. Cetacea 3 : 22 30.
116. Podos, J., da Silva, V.M.F. Rossi-Santos, M.R. 2002. Vocalization of Amazon river dolphins, Inia geoffrensis: insights into the evolutionary origins of delphinid whistles. Ethology 108 : 601 612.
117. Popov, V.V., Supin, A.Y., Wang, D., Wang, K., Xiao, J. Li, S. 2005. Evoked-potential audiogram of the Yangtze finless porpoise Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis (L). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 117 : 2728 2731.
118. Pryor, T., Pryor, K. Norris, K.S. 1965. Observations on a pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata Gray) from Hawaii. J. Mamm. 46 : 450 461.
119. Ramos, R.M.A., Di Beneditto, A.P.M., Siciliano, S., Santos, M.C.O., Zerbini, A.N., Bertozzi, C., Vicente, A.F.C., Zampirolli, E., Alvarenga, F.S. Lima, N.R.W. 2002. Morphology of the Franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei) off southeastern Brazil: sexual dimorphism, growth and geographic variation. Latin Am. J. Aquat. Mamm. 1 (Special Issue 1 129 144.
120. Rasmussen, M.H. Miller, L.A. 2002. Whistles and clicks from white-beaked dolphins, Lagenorhynchus albirostris, recorded in Faxaflói Bay, Iceland. Aquat. Mamm. 28 : 78 89.
121. Rasmussen, M.H. Miller, L.A. 2004. Echolocation and social signals from white-beaked dolphins, Lagenorhynchus albirostris, recorded in Icelandic Waters. In : Echolocation in Bats and Dolphins (J. A. Thomas, C. F. Moss M. Vater, eds pp. 50 53. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
122. Rendell, L.E., Matthews, J.N., Gill, A., Gordon, J.C.D. Macdonald, D.W. 1999. Quantitative analysis of tonal calls from five odontocete species, examining interspecific and intraspecific variation. J. Zool. 249 : 403 410.
123. Richardson, W.J., Greene, C.R. Jr., Malme, C.I. Thomson, D.H. 1995. Marine Mammals and Noise. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
124. Ridgway, S.H. Carder, D.A. 1988. Nasal pressure and sound production in an echolocating white whale, Delphinapterus leucas. In : Animal Sonar Processes and Performance (P.E. Nachtigall P.W.B. Moore, eds pp. 53 60. Plenum Press, New York.
125. Ridgway, S.H. Carder, D.A. 2001. Assessing hearing and sound production in cetaceans not available for behavioral audiograms: experiences with sperm, pygmy sperm, and gray whales. Aquat. Mamm. 27 : 267 276.
126. Ridgway, S.H., Carder, D.A., Green, R.F., Gaunt, A.S., Gaunt, S.L.L. Evans, W.E. 1980. Electromyographic and pressure events in the nasolaryngeal system of dolphins during sound production. In : Animal Sonar Systems (R. G. Busnel J. F. Fish, eds pp. 239 249. Plenum Press, New York.
127. Ridgway, S.H., Carder, D.A., Kamolnick, T., Smith, R.R., Schlundt, C.E. Elsberry, W.R. 2001. Hearing and whistling in the deep sea: depth influences whistle spectra but does not attenuate hearing by white whales (Delphinapterus leucas) (Odontoceti, Cetacea). J. Exp. Biol. 204 : 3829 3841.
128. Roger, T.L. Brown, S.M. 1999. Acoustic observations of Arnoux's beaked whale (Barardius arnuxii) off Kemp land, Antarctica. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 15 : 192 198.
129. Rosel, P.E., Haygood, M.G. Perrin, W.F. 1995. Phylogenetic relationships among the true porpoises (Cetacea: Phocoenidae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 4 : 463 474.
130. Ross, G.J.B. 1984. The smaller cetaceans of the south east coast of southern Africa. Ann. Cape Prov. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 15 : 173 410.
131. Santos, M.C.O. Netto, D.F. 2005. Killer whale (Orcinus orca) predation on a franciscana dolphin (Pontoporia brainvillei) in Brazilian waters. Latin Am. J. Aquat. Mamm. 4 : 69 72.
132. Schevill, W.E. 1964. Underwater sounds of cetaceans. In : Marine Bio-Acoustics (W. N. Tavolga, ed. pp. 307 316. Pergamon, Oxford.
133. Schevill, W.E. Watkins, W.A. 1971. Pulsed sounds of the porpoise Lagenorhynchus australis. Breviora 366 : 1 10.
134. Schevill, W.E., Watkins, W.A. Ray, C. 1969. Click structure in the porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. J. Mamm. 50 : 721 728.
135. Schnell, G.D., Douglas, M.E. Hough, D.J. 1985. Sexual dimorphism in spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata) in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 1 : 1 14.
136. Schotten, M., Au, W.W.L., Lammers, M.O. Aubauer, R. 2004. Echolocation recordings and localization of wild spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) and Pantropical spotted dolphins (S. attenuata) using a four-hydrophone array. In : Echolocation in Bats and Dolphins (J. A. Thomas, C. F. Moss M. Vater, eds pp. 393 400. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
137. Scott, M.D. Cordaro, J.G. 1987. Behavioral observations of the dwarf sperm whale, Kogia simus. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 3 : 353 354.
138. Silber, G.K. 1991 Acoustic signals of the Vaquita (Phocoena sinus). Aquat. Mamm. 17 : 130 133.
139. Sjare, B.L. Smith, T.G. 1986. The vocal repertoire of white whales, Delphinapterus leucas, summering in Cunningham Inlet, Northwest Territories. Can. J. Zool. 64 : 407 415.
140. Steiner, W.W. 1981. Species-specific differences in pure tonal whistle vocalizations of five western north Atlantic dolphin species. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 9 : 241 246.
141. Szymanski, M.D., Bain, D.E., Kiehl, K., Pennington, S., Wong, S. Henry, R. 1999. Killer whale (Orcinus orca) hearing: auditory brainstem response and behavioral audiograms. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106 : 1134 1141.
142. Takemura, A. Nishiwaki, M. 1975. Studies on the underwater sound - V. On the underwater calls of the Indus river dolphin (Platanista gangetica). Bull. Fac. Fish. Nagasaki. Univ. 40 : 1 6.
143. The Marine Acoustics Society of Japan (2004) Fundamentals and Applications of Marine Acoustics. Seizando Shoten, Tokyo (in Japanese).
144. Thomas, J., Stoermer, M., Bowers, C., Anderson, L. Garver, A. 1988. Detection abilies and signal characteristics of echolocating false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens). In : Animal Sonar Processes and Performance (P. E. Nachtigall P. W. B. Moore, eds pp. 323 328. Plenum, New York.
145. Thomsen, F., Franck, D. Ford, J.K.B. 2001. Characteristics of whistles from the acoustic repertoire of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 109 : 1240 1246.
146. Tyack, P.L. Clark, C.W. 2000. Communication and acoustic behavior of dolphins and whales. In : Hearing by Whales and Dolphins (W. W. L. Au, A. N. Popper R. R. Fay, eds pp. 156 224. Springer, New York.
147. Tyack, P.L., Johnson, M., Aguilar Soto, N., Sturlese, A. Madsen, P.T. 2006. Extreme diving of beaked whales. J. Exp. Biol. 209 : 4238 4253.
148. Van Parijs, S.M. Corkeron, P.J. 2001. Vocalizations and behaviour of Pacific Humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis. Ethology 107 : 701 716.
149. Van Parijs, S.M., Parra, G.J. Corkeron, P.J. 2000. Sounds produced by Australian Irrawaddy dolphins, Orcaella brevirostris. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 108 : 1938 1940.
150. Villadsgaard, A., Wahlberg, M. Tougaard, J. 2007. Echolocation signals of wild harbour porpoises, Phocoena phocoena. J. Exp. Biol. 210 : 56 64.
151. Von Fersen, L., Kamminga, L.C. Seidl, A. 2000. Estudios preliminares sobre el comportamiento de un ejemplar de Franciscana (Pontoporia blainvillei) en Mundo Marino, Argentina. In : Report of the Third Workshop for Coordinated Research and Conservation of the Franciscana Dolphin (Pontoporia blainvillei) in the Southwestern Atlantic (UNEP/CMS, ed), pp. 30 33. UNEP/CMS Secretariat, Bonn (in Spanish).
152. Waddell, V.G., Milinkovitch, M.C., Berube, M. Stanhope, M.J. 2000. Molecular phylogenetic examination of the Delphinoidea Trichotomy: Congruent evidence from three Nuclear Loci indicates that porpoises (Phocoenidae) share a more recent common ancestry with white whales (Monodontidae) than they do with true dolphins (Delphinidae). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 15 : 314 318.
153. Wang, D., Würsig, B. Evans, W.E. 1995a. Whistles of bottlenose dolphins: comparisons among populations. Aquat. Mamm. 21 : 65 77.
154. Wang, D., Würsig, B. Evans, W. 1995b. Comparisons of whistles among seven odontocete species. In : Sensory Systems of Aquatic Mammals (R. A. Kastelein, J. A. Thomas P. E. Nachtigall, eds pp. 299 323. De Spil Publisher, Woerden, The Netherlands.
155. Wang, D., Wang, K., Akamatsu, T. Fujita, K. 1999. Study on whistling of the Chinese river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer). Oceanol. Limnol. Sin. 30 : 349 354 (in Chinese with English Abstract).
156. Wang, J.Y., Chou, L.-S., White, B.N. 2000. Differences in the external morphology of two sympatric species of bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops) in the waters of China. J. Mamm. 81 : 1157 1165.
157. Wang, D., Würsig, B. Leatherwood, S. 2001. Whistles of boto, Inia geoffrensis, and tucuxi, Sotalia fluviatilis. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 109 : 407 411.
158. Watkins, W.A. 1977. Acoustic behavior of sperm whales. Oceanus 2 : 50 58.
159. Watkins, W.A. 1980. Click sounds from animals at sea. In : Animal Sonar Systems (R. -G. Busnel J. F. Fish, eds pp. 291 297. Plenum, New York.
160. Watkins, W.A., Schevill, W.E. Best, P.B. 1977. Underwater sounds of Cephalorhynchus heavisidii (Mammalia: Cetacea). J. Mamm. 58 : 316 320.
161. Watkins, W.A., Daher, M.A., Samuels, A. Gannon, D.P. 1997. Observations of Peponocephala electra, the Melon-headed Whale, in the Southeastern Caribbean. Carib. J. Sci. 33 : 34 40.
162. Williams, T.M. Worthy, G.A.J. 2002. Anatomy and physiology: the challenge of aquatic living. In : Marine Mammal Biology, An Evolutionary Approach (A. R. Hoelzel, ed. pp. 73 97. Blackwell Publishing Co., Malden, MA.
163. Winn, H.E. Perkins, P.J. 1970. Sounds and Behaviour of the Northern Bottlenose Whale. 7th Biennial Conference on Biological Sonar and Diving Mammals. Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA. pp. 53 59.
164. Wood, F.G. Evans, W.E. 1980. Adaptiveness and ecology of echolocation in toothed whales. In : Animal Sonar Systems (R. G. Busnel J. F. Fish, eds pp. 381 425. Plenum Press, New York.
165. Yamada, M. 1954. Some remarks on the pygmy sperm whale. Kogia. Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. 9 : 37 61.
166. Zimmer, W.M.X., Johnson, M.P., Madsen, P.T. Tyack, P.L. 2005. Echolocation clicks of free-ranging Cuvier's beaked whales (Ziphius cavirostris). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 117 : 3919 3927.