A review of salt scaling: I. Phenomenology

Cement and Concrete Research

Volumn 37, Issue 7, 2007, Pages 1007-1021

  Valenza II, John J ^a   Scherer, George W ^a  

^a Princeton University   (United States)

Author keywords

Phenomenology; Salt scaling

Indexed keywords

CONCRETES; DAMAGE TOLERANCE;

PHENOMENOLOGY; SALT SCALING;

SALTS;

EID: 34250770064     PISSN: 00088846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.03.005     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Arnfelt H. Damage on Concrete Pavements by Wintertime Salt Treatment. Meddelande vol. 66 (1943), Statens Väginstitut, Stockholm
2. Verbeck G.J., and Klieger P. Studies of "salt" scaling of concrete. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 150 (1957) 1-17
3. Jana D. Concrete construction or salt-which causes scaling?. Concr. Int. (Nov. 2004) 31-38
4. Marchand J., Pleau R., and Gagné R. Deterioration of concrete due to freezing and thawing. In: Skalny J., and Mindess S. (Eds). Materials Science of Concrete IV (1995), Am. Ceram. Soc, Westerville, OH 283-354
5. S. Lindmark, "Mechanisms of salt frost scaling of Portland cement-bound materials: studies and hypothesis", Ph.D. thesis (Report TVBN 1017), Lund Inst. Tech., Lund, Sweden, 1998.
6. Marchand J., Sellevold E.J., and Pigeon M. The Deicer Salt Scaling Deterioration of Concrete-An Overview. Am. Concr. Inst. SP vol. 145-1 (1994) 1-46
7. Valenza II J.J., and Scherer G.W. A Review of Salt Scaling: II. Mechanisms. Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (2007) 1022-1034 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.03.003
8. Pigeon M., Perraton D., and Pleau R. Scaling test of silica fume concrete and the critical spacing factor concept. In: Scanlon J. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-100 (1987), Amer. Concr. Inst., Detroit 1155-1182
9. Bilodeau A., and Malhotra V.M. Deicing salt scaling resistance of concrete incorporating supplementary cementing materials: CANMET researches. International Workshop on the Resistance of Concrete to Scaling Due to Freezing in the Presence of Deicing Salts (August 1993), Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur le Beton, Université de Sherbrooke-Université Laval, Quebec 191-228
10. Bilodeau A., Carette G.G., Malhotra V.M., and Langley W.S. Influence of curing and drying on slat scaling resistance of fly ash concrete. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-126 (1991), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 201-228
11. Standard test method for scaling resistance of concrete surfaces exposed to deicing chemicals. ASTM Standard C672. Annual Book of ASTM Standards vol. 04.02 (1992), American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia 341-343
12. SIS. Concrete Testing-Hardened Concrete-Frost Resistance. Standardiserings-kommissionen i Sverige, Swedish Standard 13 72 44 (1992)
13. Setzer M.J., and Hartmann V. Improved frost/de-icing salt resistance testing. Concr. Precast Plant Technol. 57 9 (1991) 73-82
14. Sellevold E.J., and Farstad T. Frost/salt testing of concrete: effect of test parameters and concrete moisture history. Nord. Concr. Res. 10 (1991) 121-138
15. Pigeon M., and Pleau R. Durability of Concrete in Cold Climates (1995), E & FN Spon, London
16. S. Jacobsen, "Scaling and cracking in unsealed freeze/thaw testing of Portland cement and silica fume concretes", Thesis report 1995: 101, Norwegian Inst. Tech., Trondheim, pp. 55 (1995).
17. S. Jacobsen, "Scaling and cracking in unsealed freeze/thaw testing of Portland cement and silica fume concretes", Thesis report 1995: 101, Norwegian Inst. Tech., Trondheim, pp. 177-195 (1995).
18. Petersson P.E. The influence of silica fume on the salt frost resistance of concrete. Technical Report SP-RAPP 1986 vol. 32 (1986), Swedish National Testing Institute, Division of Building Technology
19. Studer W. Internal comparative tests on frost-deicing salt resistance. International Workshop on the Resistance of Concrete to Scaling Due to Freezing in the Presence of Deicing Salts (August 1993), Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur le Beton, Université de Sherbrooke-Université Laval, Quebec 175-187
20. Marchand J., Pigeon M., Bager D., and Talbot C. Influence of chloride solution concentration of salt scaling deterioration of concrete. ACI Mater. J. (July-Aug 1999) 429-435
21. Stark D. Effect of Length of Freezing Period on Durability of Concrete. Portland Cement Association Research and Development Bulletin RD096T (1989)
22. Fournier B., Bérubé M.A., and Vézina D. Condition survey of concrete structures built with potentially alkali reactive limestone aggregates from the Québec City area. In: Scanlon J. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-100 (1987), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 1343-1361
23. Sommer H. The precision of the microscopical determination of the air-void system in hardened concrete. Cem. Concr. Aggreg. 1 2 (1979) 49-55
24. Siebel E. Air-void characteristics and freezing and thawing resistance of superplasticized air-entrained concrete with high workability. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-119 (1989) 297-319
25. Setzer M.J. On the abnormal freezing of pore water and testing of freeze/thaw and deicing salt resistance. International Workshop on the Resistance of Concrete to Scaling Due to Freezing in the Presence of Deicing Salts (August 1993), Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur le Beton, Université de Sherbrooke-Université Laval, Quebec 3-17
26. Jacobsen S., Farstad T., Gran H.C., and Sellevold E.J. Frost salt scaling of no slump concrete: effect of strength. Nord. Concr. Res. 11 (1991) 57-71
27. Sorensen E.G. Freezing and thawing resistance of condensed silica fume (microsilica) concrete exposed to deicing chemicals. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-79 (1983) 709-718
28. Aitcin P.C., and Pigeon M. Performance of condensed silica fume concrete used in pavements and sidewalks. Durab. Build. Mater. 3 (1986) 353-368
29. Jackson F.H. Long-time study of cement performance in concrete: chapter 11-report on the condition of three test pavements after 15 years of service. J. Am. Concr. Inst. 29 12 (1958) 1017-1032
30. Klieger P. Curing requirements for scale resistance of concrete. Highw. Res. Board Bull. 50 (1956) 18-31
31. Gebler S.H., and Klieger P. Effect of fly ash on the durability of air-entrained concrete. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-91 (1986), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 483-519
32. Gunter M., Bier Th., and Hilsdorf H. Effect of curing and type of cement on the resistance of concrete to freezing in deicing salt solutions. In: Scanlon J. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-100 (1987), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 877-899
33. Klieger P., and Perenchio W. Silicone influence on concrete resistance to freeze-thaw and de-icer damage. Highw. Res. Rec. 18 (1963) 33-47
34. Hammer T.A., and Sellevold E.J. Frost resistance of high-strength concrete. In: Hester W.T. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-121 (1990), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 457-487
35. Powers T.C., and Helmuth R.A. Theory of volume changes in hardened Portland-cement paste during freezing. Proc. Highw. Res. Board 32 (1953) 285-297
36. Helmuth R.A. Discussion of the paper "Frost Action in Concrete". In: Nerenst P. (Ed). Proc. 4th Int. Cong. Chemistry of Cement, NBS Monog. 43 vol. II (1962), National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 829-833
37. MacInnis C., and Beaudoin J.J. Effect of the degree of saturation on the frost resistance of mortar mixes. ACI Mater. J. 68 3 (1968) 203-207
38. Kobayashi M., Nakakuro E., Kodama K., and Negami S. Frost resistance of superplasticized concrete. ACI Special Publication SP-68 (1981), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 269-282
39. Pigeon M., Pleau R., and Aitcin P.C. Freeze-thaw durability of concrete with and without silica fume in ASTM C666 (Procedure A) test method: internal cracking versus surface scaling. Cem. Concr. Aggreg. 8 2 (1986) 76-85
40. Beddoe R.E., and Setzer M.J. A low temperature DSC investigation of hardened cement paste subjected to chloride action. Cem. Concr. Res. 18 (1988) 249-256
41. Klieger P., and Gebler S. Fly ash and concrete durability. In: Scanlon J. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-100 (1987), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 1043-1069
42. Powers T.C. A working hypothesis for further studies of frost resistance of concrete. J. Am. Concr. Inst. 16 4 (1945) 245-272
43. Bouzoubaâ N., Zhang M.H., and Malhotra V.M. Mechanical properties and durability of concrete made with high-volume fly ash blended cements using a coarse fly ash. Cem. Concr. Res. 31 3 (2001) 1393-1402
44. Johnston C. Effects of microsilica and class C fly ash on resistance of concrete to rapid freezing and thawing, and scaling in the presence of deicing agents. In: Scanlon J. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-100 (1987) 1183-1204
45. Marchand J., Gagne R., Pigeon M., Jacobsen S., and Sellevold E.J. In: Sakai K., Banthia N., and Gjørv O.E. (Eds). Concrete Under Severe Conditions: Environment and Loading vol. 1 (1995), E & FN Spon 273-288
46. Foy C., Pigeon M., and Banthia N. Freeze-thaw durability and deicer salt scaling resistance of a 0.25 water-cement ratio concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 18 (1988) 604-614
47. Lanlois M., Beaupre D., Pigeon M., and Foy C. The influence of curing on the salt scaling resistance of concrete with and without silica fume. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-114 (1989), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 971-989
48. Bordeleau D., Pigeon M., and Banthia N. Comparative study of latex modified concretes and normal concretes subjected to freezing and thawing in the presence of deicer salt solution. ACI Mater. J. 89 6 (1992) 547-553
49. Klieger P. Durability studies at the Portland cement association. In: Sereda P.J., and Litvan G.G. (Eds). ASTM Special Technical Publication STP-691 (1980) 282-300
50. Backstrom J.E., Burrows R.W., Mielenz R.C., and Wolkodoff V.E. Origin, evolution and effects of the air void system in concrete. Part 2: influence of type and amount of air entraining agent. J. Am. Concr. Inst. 30 2 (1958) 261-272
51. Mindness S., and Young J.F. Concrete (1981), Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 212
52. Neville A.M. Properties of Concrete (1996), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
53. Bruere G.M. Mechanisms by which air-entraining agents affect viscosities and bleeding properties of cement pastes. Austr. J. Appl. Sci. 9 (1958) 349-359
54. Powers T.C. The Properties of Fresh Concrete (1968), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York
55. Taylor H.F.W. The chemistry of cement hydration. In: Burke J.E. (Ed). Progress in Ceramic Science vol. 1 (1961), Pergamon, New York 89-145
56. Kreijger P.C. The skin of concrete, composition and properties. Mater. Struct. 17 100 (1984) 275-283
57. Afrani I., and Rogers C. The effect of different cementing materials and curing regimes on the scaling resistance of concrete. Third Canadian Symposium on Cement and Concrete (1993), National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Research in Construction, Ottowa, Canada 149-166
58. Janeva D., Beslac J., Sekulic D., and Mavar K. The influence of hydraulic additions to cement on frost and de-icing salt resistance of concrete. In: Setzer M.J., Auberg R., and Keck H.-J. (Eds). Proc. of Frost Resistance of Concrete from Nano-Structure and Pore Solution to Macroscopic Behavior and Testing, Essen, Germany (2002), RILEM, Paris, France 343-350
59. Tremblay M.-H., Lory F., Marchand J., Scherer G.W., and Valenza J.J. Ability of the glue spall model to account for the de-icer salt scaling deterioration of concrete. Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on the Chemistry of Cement, Montreal, Canada (July 2007)
60. Scherer G.W., and Valenza J.J. Mechanisms of Frost Damage. In: Skalny J., and Young F. (Eds). Materials Science of Concrete vol. VII (2005), American Ceramic Society 209-246
61. Whiting D., and Schmitt J. A model for deicer scaling resistance of field concretes containing high-range water reducers. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-119 (1989), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 343-359
62. Rose K., Hope B.B., and Ip A.K.C. Statistical analysis of strength and durability of concrete made with different cements. Cem. Concr. Res. 19 (1989) 476-486
63. Klieger P., and Landgren R. Performance of concrete slabs in outdoor exposure. Highw. Res. Rec. 28 (1969) 62-79
64. Whiting D. Deicer scaling resistance of lean concretes containing fly ash. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-114 (1989), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 349-372
65. Bilodeau A., and Malhotra V.M. Concrete incorporating high volumes of ASTM class F fly ashes: mechanical properties and resistance to deicing salt scaling and to chloride-ion penetration. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-132 (1992), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 319-349
66. Bilodeau A., and Carette G.G. Resistance of condensed silica fume concrete to the combined action of freezing and thawing cycling and deicing salts. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-114 (1990), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 945-970
67. Gagne R., Pigeon M., and Aitcin P.-C. Deicer salt scaling resistance of high performance concrete. In: Whiting D. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-122 (1990), American Concrete Institute, Detroit 29-44
68. Jacobsen S., and Sellevold E.J. Frost/salt scaling and ice formation of concrete: effect of curing temperature and silica fume on normal and high strength concrete. International Workshop on the Resistance of Concrete to Scaling due to Freezing in the Presence of Deicing Salts (August 1993), Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur le Beton, Université de Sherbrooke-Université Laval, Quebec 230-246
69. Detwiler R.J., and Mehta P.K. Chemical and physical effects of silica fume on the mechanical behavior of concrete. ACI Mater. J. 86 6 (1989) 609-614
70. Scrivener K.L., Bentur A., and Pratt P.L. Quantitative characterization of the transition zone in high strength concretes. Adv. Cem. Res. 1 4 (1988) 230-237
71. Scrivener K.L., Crumbie A.K., and Laugesen P. Interf. Sci. The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between cement paste and aggregate in concrete vol. 12 (2004) 411-421
72. Gagne R., Pigeon M., and Aitcin P.C. Deicer salt scaling resistance of high strength concretes made with different cements. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-126 (1991) 185-199
73. Neuwald A., Krishnan A., Weiss J., Olek J., and Nantung T.E. Concrete curing and its relationship to measured scaling in concrete containing fly ash. Proc. Annual Meeting Indiana Transportation Research Board (January, 2003). http://bridge.ecn.purdue.edu/%257Econcrete/weiss/publications.shtml available at: http://bridge.ecn.purdue.edu/%257Econcrete/weiss/publications.shtml
74. Fagerlund G. The required air content of concrete. Contribution to the Workshop on "Mass Energy Transfer and Deterioration of Building Components", Paris (January 1995)
75. Fagerlund G. Predicting the service life of concrete exposed to frost action through modelling of the water absorption process in the air-pore system. Lund Institute of Technology, Div. of Building Materials, report TVBM-7085 (1994)
76. Fagerlund G. Moisture uptake and service life of concrete exposed to frost. In: Sakai K., Banthia N., and Gjørv O.E. (Eds). Proceedings of the International Conference on Concrete under Severe Conditions, Sapporo, Japan vol. 1 (August 2-4 1995), E & FN Spon, Tokyo
77. Fagerlund G. The international cooperative test of the critical degree of saturation method of assessing the freeze/thaw resistance of concrete. Mater. Constr. 10 58 (1977) 230-251
78. Gebler S.H., and Klieger P. Effect of fly ash on the air void stability of concrete. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-79 (1983) 103-142
79. Pistilli M.F. Air void parameters developed by air-entraining admixtures, as influenced by soluble alkalies from fly ash and Portland cement. J. Am. Concr. Inst. 80 3 (1983) 217-222
80. Sturrup V.R., Hooton R.D., and Clendenning T.G. Durability of fly ash concrete. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). ACI Special Publication SP-79 (1983) 71-86
81. Virtanen J. Field study on the effects of additions on the salt scaling resistance of concrete. Nord. Concr. Res. 9 (1990) 197-212
82. Stark J., and Ludwig H.M. Freeze-thaw and freeze-deicing salt resistance of concretes containing cement rich in granulated blast-furnace slag. Paper 4iv035. Proc. 10th Int. Cong. Chemistry Cement vol. 4 (1997), SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway
83. 2O. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46 6 (1982) 1011-1040
84. Ngala V.T., and Page C.L. Effects of carbonation on pore structure and diffusional properties of hydrated cement pastes. Cem. Concr. Res. 27 7 (1997) 995-1007
85. Taylor H.F.W. Cement Chemistry (1997), Thomas Telford, London 357-359
86. Litvan G.G., and Meyer A. Carbonation of granulated blast furnace slag cement concrete during twenty years of field exposure. In: Malhotra V.M. (Ed). Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Other Mineral By-Products in Concrete (1986) 1445-1462
87. Utgenannt P. Influence of carbonation on the scaling resistance of OPC concrete. In: Janssen D.J., Setzer M.J., and Snyder M.B. (Eds). Proc. of the Intl. Workshop on Frost Damage in Concrete, Minneapolis, MN (June 1999), RILEM, Paris, France 103-113
88. Sellevold E.J., and Radjy F. Drying and resaturation effects on internal friction in hardened cement pastes. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 59 5-6 (1976) 256-258
89. Zhang L., and Glasser F.P. Critical examination of drying damage to cement pastes. Adv. Cem. Res. 12 2 (2000) 79-88
90. Galle C. Effect of drying on cement-based materials pore structure as identified by mercury intrusion porosimetry. A comparative study between oven-, vacuum-, and freeze-drying. Cem. Concr. Res. 31 (2001) 1467-1477
91. Radjy F., and Richards C.W. Effect of curing and heat treatment history on the dynamical mechanical response and the pore structure of hardened cement paste. Cem. Concr. Res. 3 (1973) 7-21
92. Bray W.H., and Sellevold E.J. Water sorption properties of hardened cement paste cured or stored at elevated temperatures. Cem. Concr. Res. 3 6 (1973) 723-728
93. Sellevold E.J. Mercury porosimetry of hardened cement paste cured or stored at 97 °C. Cem. Concr. Res. 4 (1974) 399-404
94. Goto S., and Roy D.M. The effect of w/c ratio and curing temperature on the permeability of hardened cement paste. Cem. Concr. Res. 11 4 (1981) 575-579
95. Jacobsen S., and Sellevold E.J. Frost/salt scaling and ice formation of concrete: effect of curing temperature and silica fume on normal and high-strength concrete. Int. Workshop on freeze-thaw and deicing salt scaling resistance of concrete (1993), CRIB, Sherbrooke-Laval, Canada 231-246
96. Bager D.H., and Sellevold E.J. Ice formation in hardened cement paste-II. Steam-cured pastes with variable moisture contents. In: Sereda P.J., and Litvan G.G. (Eds). Durability of Building Materials and Components. ASTM STP vol. 691 (1980), ASTM 439-454
97. Richardson D.N. Review of variables that influence measured concrete compressive strength. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 3 2 (1991) 95-112
98. Gregg S.J., and Sing K.S.W. Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity. 2nd ed (1982), Academic, London
99. Happel J., and Brenner H. Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics (1986), Martinus Nijhoff, Dordrecht 389-404
100. Scherer G.W. Structure and properties of gels. Cem. Concr. Res. 29 8 (1999) 1149-1157
101. Scherer G.W. Theory of drying. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 73 1 (1990) 3-14
102. Scherer G.W. Fundamentals of drying and shrinkage. In: Henkes V.E., Onoda E.Y., and Carty W.M. (Eds). Science of Whitewares (1995), Am. Ceram. Soc., Westerville, Ohio 199-212
103. Badmann R., Stockhausen N., and Setzer M.J. The statistical thickness and the chemical potential of adsorbed water films. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 82 2 (1981) 534-542
104. Brun M., Lallemand A., Quinson J.F., and Eyraud C. A new method for the simultaneous determination of the size and the shape of pores: the thermoporometry. Thermochim. Acta 21 (1977) 59-88
105. Torquato S. Random Heterogeneous Materials: Microstructure and Macroscopic Properties (2001), Springer-Verlag, New York
106. Katz A.J., and Thompson A.H. Prediction of Rock Electrical Conductivity from Mercury Intrusion Measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 92 B1 (1987) 599-607
107. Liu H., Zhang L., and Seaton N.A. Analysis of sorption hysteresis in mesoporous solids using a pore network model. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 156 (1993) 285-293 (erratum, 162 (1994) 265)
108. Katz A.J., and Thompson A.H. Quantitative prediction of permeability in porous rock. Phys. Rev., B 34 11 (1986) 8179-8181
109. Hwang C.-L., and Young J.F. Drying shrinkage of Portland cement pastes: I. Microcracking during drying. Cem. Concr. Res. 14 (1984) 585-594
110. Bisschop J., and Van Mier J.G.M. How to study drying shrinkage microcracking in cement-based materials using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Cem. Concr. Res. 32 (2002) 279-287
111. Taylor H.F.W. Cement Chemistry (1997), Thomas Telford, London 165
112. Feldman R.F., and Cheng-yi H. Properties of Portland cement-silica fume pastes: I. Porosity and surface properties. Cem. Concr. Res. 15 (1985) 765-774
113. Khatri R.P., and Sirivivatnanon V. Effect of different supplementary cementitious materials on mechanical properties of high performance concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 25 1 (1995) 209-220
114. Cheng-yi H., and Feldman R.F. Hydration reactions in Portland cement-silica fume blends. Cem. Concr. Res. 15 (1985) 585-592
115. Atkins M., Lachowski E.E., and Glasser F.P. Solid and aqueous chemistry of 10-year-old Portland cement pastes: with and without silica modifier. Adv. Cem. Res. 5 (1993) 97
116. Sedran T., Pigeon M., and Hazrati K. The influence of penetrating sealers on the deicer salt scaling resistance of concrete. In: Nagataki S., Nireki T., and Tomosawa F. (Eds). Durability of Building Materials and Components vol. 6 (1993), E & FN Spon, London 487-496
117. Cleland D.J., and Basheer L. Assessing the freeze thaw durability of surface treated concrete. In: Setzer M.J., Auberg R., and Keck H.-J. (Eds). Proc. of Frost Resistance of Concrete from Nano-Structure and Pore Solution to Macroscopic Behavior and Testing, Essen, Germany (2002), RILEM, Paris, France 359-366
118. Perenchio W.F. Durability of concrete treated with silanes. Concrete International (November 1988) 34-40