Mass violence and mental health: Attachment and trauma

International Review of Psychiatry

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 221-233

  De Zulueta, C Felicity ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Attachment; Disasters; Mass violence; Post traumatic stress disorder; Psychosocial interventions

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR DISORDER; COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH; EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT; EMOTIONAL DISORDER; HUMAN; MEDICAL EDUCATION; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL HEALTH; PARENT; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOBIOLOGY; REVIEW; SOCIAL SUPPORT; SOCIAL WORKER; VIOLENCE; VULNERABLE POPULATION;

HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MASS BEHAVIOR; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; OBJECT ATTACHMENT; POLITICS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; VIOLENCE; WAR; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 34250688715     PISSN: 09540261     EISSN: 13691627     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09540260701349464     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Abrams, M. (1999). Intergenerational transmission of trauma: Recent contributions from the literature of family systems approaches to treatment. American Journal Psychotherapy, 53, 225.
2. Ahlstrom, C. (1991). Casualties of conflict: Report of the world campaign for the protection of victims of war. Uppsala: Uppsala University.
3. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
4. Al Krenawi, A. (2005). Mental health practice in Arab countries. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 18, 560-564.
5. Arroyo, W., & Spencer, E. (1996). Post traumatic stress disorder in children in the war zone. In R. Apfel & B. Simon (Eds.), Minefields in their hearts, the mental health of children in war and community violence (pp. 52-74). London: University Press.
6. Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., & Solomon, Z. (2003). Exposure to terrorism, stress related mental health symptoms, and coping behaviours among a nationally representative sample in Israel. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 612-620.
7. Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., Melamed, Y., & Solomon, Z. (2006). BMC Mdeicine, 4, 21 (Published on line).
8. Bloom, S. (1997). Creating Sanctuary: Toward the Evolution of Sane Societies. London: Routledge.
9. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. (Vol. 1); Attachment and loss(Vol. 2), (2nd ed). London: Hogarth Press.
10. Bowlby, J. (1973). Separation: Anxiety and anger (Vol. 2); attachment and loss. London: Hogarth Press.
11. Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss, Sadness and Depression (Vol. 3); Attachment and Loss. London: Hogarth Press.
12. Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London: Routledge.
13. Bracken, P. J., Giller, J. E., & Kabaganda, S. (1992). Helping victims of violence in Uganda. Medicine and War, 8, 155-163.
14. Bryce, J. W., Walker, N., Ghorayeb, F. et al. (1989). Life experiences, response styles and mental health among mothers and children in Beirut, Lebanon. Social Sciences and Medicine, 28, 685-695.
15. Capitanio, J. P., Weissberg, M., & Reite, M. (1985). Biology of maternal behaviour: Recent findings and implications. In M. Reite & T. Field (Eds.), The psychobiology of attachment and separation (pp. 223-255). London: Academic Press.
16. Dirkzwager, A. J. E., Grievink, l., Van der Velden, P. G., & Yzermans, C. J. (2006). Risk factore for psychological and physical health problems after a man made disaster. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189, 144-149.
17. DSM-IV (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, 4th edition. Washington: American Psychiatric Association.
18. Elworthy, S., & Rifkind, G. (2005). Hearts and minds; human security approaches to political violence. London: Demos.
19. Fairbairn, R. (1952). Psychoanalytic study of the personality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
20. Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1997). Attachment and reflective function: Their role in self organisation. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 679-700.
21. Foa, E. B., & Jaycox, L. H. (1999). Cognitive-behaviour treatment of post traumatic stress disorder. In D. Spiegel: (Ed.), Psychotherapeutic fronties. New principles and practices (pp. 23-61). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
22. Garbarino, J., & Kostelny, K. (1996). What do we need to know to understand children in war and community violence. In R. Apfel & B. Simon (Eds.), Minefields in their hearts, the mental health of children in war and community violence (pp. 33-51). London: University Press.
23. Golec, J. (1980). Aftermath of disaster: the Teton dam break, PhD dissertation. Columbus, OH: Disaster Research Centre, Ohio State University.
24. Guidano, V. F. (1987). Complexity of the self: A developmental approach to psychopathology and therapy. New York, London: Guilford Press.
25. Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneurendocrinology, 27, 199-220.
26. Harlow, H. F. (1974). Learning to love, (2nd ed). New York, London: Jason Aronson.
27. Hart, J., Gunnar, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1995). Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 11-26.
28. Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
29. Henry, J. (1997). Psychological and physiological responses to stress: The right hemisphere and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-axis, an inquiry into problems of human bonding. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 161, 164-169.
30. ICD-10 Classification of Mental, & Behavioural Disorders. (1994). World health organisation, Geneva. London: Churchill Livingstone.
31. Karam, E. G., Howard, D. B., Karam, A. N., Ashkar, A., Shaaya, M., Melhem, N., & El-Khoury, N. (1998). Major depression and external stressors: the Lebanon Wars. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 248, 225-230.
32. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., Nelson, C. B., & Breslau, N. (1999). Epidemiological risk factors for trauma and PTSD. In R. Yehuda (Ed.), Risk factors for post traumatic stress disorder. Washington: American Psychiatric Press.
33. Klein, H. (1971). Families of Holocaust survivors in the kibbutz: Psychological studies. In H. Krystal & W.G. Niederland (Eds.), Psychic Traumatisation: After Effects in Individuals and Communities (pp. 67-92). Boston: Little, Brown & Co..
34. Laor, N., Wolmer, L., Mayes, L.C., Gershon, A., Weizman, R., & Cohen, D. (1997). Israeli preschool children under Scuds: A 30 month follow-up. Journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry, 36, 349-365.
35. Laufer, A. (2003). Psychological growth in the aftermath of terrorist attacks. Palestine-Israel Journal, 4, 30-36.
36. Levav, I. (2006). Terrorism and its effects on mental health. World Psychiatry, 5, 35-36.
37. Lindemann, E. (1944). Symptomatology and management of acute grief. American journal of psychiatry, 101, 141-149.
38. Losi, N. (2002). Some assumptions on psychological trauma interventions in post conflict communities. In R. Papapdopoulos (Ed.), Therapeutic care for refugees, no place like home. London: Karnak.
39. Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1992). Disorganised/disorientated infant behaviour in the Strange Situation, lapses in monitoring of reasoning and discourse during the parent's Adult Attachement Interview, and Dissociative States. In M. Ammanati & D. Stern (Eds.), Attachment and Psychoanalysis (pp. 86-140). Rome: Gius Laterza and Figli.
40. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, Self and society from the standpoint of a social behaviourist. Chicago, London: University of Chicago Press.
41. Misisi, S. (2005). War and Mental Health in Africa. In F. G. Njenga, W. Acuda, V. Patel et al. (Eds.), Essentials of clinical psychiatry for sub-Saharan Africa. Milan: Masson.
42. Mollon, P. (2005). EMDR and the Energy Therapies. New York, London: Karnac.
43. Muhlbauer, V. (2006). Domestic violence in Israel. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087, 301-310.
44. Murthy, R. S., & Lakshminarayana, R. (2006). Mental health consequences of war: A brief review of research findings. World Psychiatry, 5, 25-30.
45. NICE Guidelines on Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. (2005). The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. Clinical Guidelines. Available at: http://www.nice.org.uk. Last accessed 26 March 2007.
46. Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Vanderlinden, J., & Spinhoven, P. (1998). Animal defensive models as a model for trauma-induced dissociative reactions. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 243-260.
47. Ogawa, J. R., Sroufe, L. A., Weinfield, N. S., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development of the fragmented self: Longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a non clinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 855-879.
48. Panksepp, J. (2003). Feeling the pain of social loss. Science, 302, 237-238.
49. Panksepp, J., Siviy, S. M., & Normansell, L. A. (1985). Brain opioids and social emotions. In M. Reite & T. Field (Eds.), The psychobiology of attachment and separation (pp. 3-49). London: Academic Press.
50. Papadopoulos, R. (2002). Therapeutic care for refugees, no place like home. London: Karnak.
51. Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Bajer, W. L., Sturges, C., Vigilandte, D., & Blakley, T. L. (1995). Continous heart rate monitoring in maltreated children. In: Proceedings, Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New Research. 21, 69.
52. Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Bajer, W. L., Sturges, C., Vigilandte, D., & Blakley, T. L. (1995). Continous heart rate monitoring in maltreated children. In Proceddings, Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Chold and Adolescent Psychiatry, New Research 21, 69.
53. Pham, P. N., Weinstein, H. M., & Longman, T. (2004) Trauma and PTSD symptoms in Rwanda: implications for attitudes towards justice and reconciliation. Journal of the American Association, 292, 602-612.
54. Pitman, R. K., Van der Kolk, B. A., Scott, P. O., & Greenberg, M. S. (1990). Naloxone-reversible analgesic response to combat- related stimuli in post traumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 541-544.
55. Quarantelli, E. L. (1985). As assessment of conflicting views on mental health: The consequences of traumatic events. In C. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake (pp. 182-220). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
56. Quouta, S., Punamaki, R. L., & El Sarraj, E. (2003). Prevalence and determinants of PTSD among Palestinian children exposed to military violence. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 12, 265-272.
57. Rauch, S. L., van der Kolk, B. A., Fisler, R. E., Alprt, N. M., Orr, S. P., Savage, C. R., Fischman, A. J., Jenike, M. A., & Pitman, R. K. (1996). A symptom provocation study of post traumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script driven imagery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 380-387.
58. Rosen, J., Reynolds, C. F., Yeager, A. L., Houck, P. R., & Hurwitz, L. F. (1991). Sleep disturbances in the survivors of the Nazi Holocaust. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 62-66.
59. Ryle, A. (1997). The structure and development of borderline personality disorder: a proposed model.. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 82-87.
60. Scurfield, R. (1985). Post trauma stress assessment and treatment: overview and formulations. In C. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake (pp. 219-256). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
61. Schore, A. N. (1996). Experience dependent maturation of a regulatory system in the orbital pre-frontal cortex and the origin of developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 59-87.
62. Schore, A. N. (2000). Attachment and the regulation of the right brain. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 23-47.
63. Shapiro, F. (1989). Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing: a new treatment for Post traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 20, 211-217.
64. Sicard, R. L. (1998) World Military and Social Expenditures, 1978-1988, Washington, DC: World Priorities.
65. Siegel, D. J. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobiology of the developing mind: attachment relationships, "mindsight", and neural integration. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 67-94.
66. Solomon, Z., Kotler, M., & Mikulencer, M. (1988). Combat related post traumatic stress disorder among second generation Holocaust survivors: Preliminary findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 865-868.
67. Somasundaran, D. (2006). The tragedy of war. World Psychiatry, 5, 36-38.
68. Sroufe, A. L. (2005). Attachment and development: a prospective longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 349-367.
69. Stern, D. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. New York: Basic Books.
70. Summerfield, D. (2001). The invention of post traumatic stress disorder and the social usefulness of of a psychiatric category. British Medical Journal, 322, 95-98.
71. Thabet, A. A. M, Karim, K., & Vostanis, P. (2006). Trauma exposure in pre-school children in a war zone. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188, 154-158.
72. Tennes, K., Downy, K., & Vernadakis, A. (1977). Urinary cortisol excretion rates and anxiety in normal one year old infants. Psychosomatic Medicine, 39, 178-187.
73. Troy, M., & Sroufe, L. A. (1987). Victimisation among preschoolers: Role of attachment relationship history. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 166-172.
74. Van der Kolk, B. A. (1996). The body keeps the score: approaches to the psychobiology of post traumatic stress disorder. In B. A. Van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic Stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society (pp. 214-241). New York: Guildford Press.
75. Van der Kolk, B. A. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder. Towards a rational diagnosis for children with complex histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 401-408.
76. Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenberg, M. J. (1997). Intergenerational transmission of attachment: A move to the contextual level. In L. Atkinson & K. J. Zucker (Eds.), Attachment and psychopathology. New York/London: Guildford Press. London and New York: Karnac.
77. Wang, S. (1997). Traumatic stress and attachment. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 161, 164-169.
78. World Health Organisation (2001). World health report 2001 - Mental health: New understanding, new hope. Geneva: Switzerland.
79. Yehuda, R. (1997). Sensitisation of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis in post traumatic stress disorder. In R. Yehuda & A. C. McFarlane (Eds.), Psychobiology of post traumatic stress disorder. New York: New York Academy of Science.
80. Yehuda, R., Hallingan, S. L., & Bierer, L. M. (2002). Cortisol levels in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors: relation to PTSD symptom severity in the parent and the child. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 171-180.
81. Yehuda, R., Engel, S. M., Brand, S., Seckl, J., Marcus, S. M., & Berkowitz, G. S., (2005). Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 90, 4115-4118.
82. Zahr, I. (1996). Effects of war on the behaviour of Lebanese preschool children: The influence of home environment and family functioning. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 401-408.
83. Zulueta, de F. (1999). 'Borderline personality disorder as seen from an attachment perspective: A revue'. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 9, 237-253.
84. Zulueta, de F. (2006a). Terror breeds terrorists. Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 22, 13-25.
85. Zulueta, de F. (2006b). From pain to violence, the roots of human destructiveness, (2nd ed). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
86. Zulueta, de F. (2006c). The role of the traumatic attachment in the assessment and treatment of adults with a history of childhood abuse and neglect. British Journal of Forensic Practice, 8, 4-15.
87. Zulueta, de F. (2006d). The treatment of Psychological trauma from the perspective of attachment research. Journal of Family Therapy, 28, 334-351.