Death squads as parallel forces: Uruguay, operation condor, and the United States

Journal of Third World Studies

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 13-52

  McSherry, J Patrice ^a  

^a LONG ISLAND UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMMUNISM; DEMOCRACY; MILITARY INTERVENTION; NATIONAL SECURITY; POLITICAL CONFLICT; POST-COLD WAR;

SOUTH AMERICA; URUGUAY;

EID: 34250363232     PISSN: 87553449     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (178)

1. Bruce B. Campbell, "Death Squads: Definition, Problems, and Historical Context," in Bruce B. Campbell and Arthur D. Brenner, (eds)., 'Death Squads in Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability' (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000), pp. 1-2;
2. see also Jeffrey A. Sluka "Introduction: State Terror and Anthropology," in 'Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000).
3. This section and others draw from my book, 'Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2005).
4. An abundant literature exists on the national security doctrine, including José Comblin, 'The Church and the National Security State' (New York: Orbis Books, 1979);
5. Ernesto López, 'Seguridad nacional y sedición militar' (Buenos Aires: Editorial Legasa, 1987);
6. Brian Loveman, 'For la Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America' (Latin American Silhouettes, SR Books, 1999), chaps. 6 and 7;
7. J. Patrice McSherry, 'Incomplete Transition: Military Power and Democracy in Argentina' (New York: Palgrave, 1997), chap. 1;
8. David Pion-Berlin, "Latin American National Security Doctrines: Hard- and Softline Themes," 'Armed Forces and Society' 15, no. 3 (Spring 1989): pp. 411-29;
9. Alfred Stepan, "The New Military Professionalism of Internal Warfare and Military Role Expansion," 'Authoritarian Brazil' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), pp. 47-65;
10. Jorge Tapia Valdés, "La doctrina de la seguridad nacional y el rol político de las fuerzas armadas," in 'El estado periférico latinoamericano', Juan Carlos Rubenstein, ed., (Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1988), pp. 237-262.
11. David Isenberg, "The Pitfalls of U.S. Covert Operations," Cato Policy Analysis No. 118, April 7, 1989 (www.cato.org/pubs/pas/PA118.htm, accessed March 29, 2005).
12. For an analysis of the CIA's classified plan of action to undermine and oust Arbenz via a paramilitary force, see Roberto García Ferreira, "La CIA en Guatemala: Manual para derrocar a un presidente," 'La Jornada' (Mexico), January 25,2004. For two recent books on U.S. involvement in coups and subversion of legal governments,
13. see Stephen Kinzer, 'Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq' (New York: Times Books, 2006),
14. and Chalmers Johnson, 'Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire' (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2000).
15. Alfred McCoy, 'A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror' (New York: Metropolitican Books, 2006), e.g. pp. 11, 60-61, chap. 3.
16. See Michael McClintock, "American Doctrine and Counterinsurgent State Terror," in Alexander George, ed., 'Western State Terrorism' (New York: Routledge, 1991): pp. 121-154;
17. Michael McClintock, 'Instruments of Statecraft: U.S. Guerrilla Warfare, Counterinsurgency, Counterterrorism, 1940-1990' (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), especially chapter 2;
18. my 'Predatory States' and my "Tracking the Origins of a State Terror Network: Operation Condor," 'Latin American Perspectives', Issue 122, Vol. 29, no. 1 (January 2002): 38-60.
19. For a noteworthy recent study of paramilitary forces in Colombia, and U.S. involvement in sustaining them, see William Aviles, "Paramilitarism and Colombia's Low-Intensity Democracy," 'Journal of Latin American Studies', Vol. 38, Issue 2 (May 2006): pp. 379-409.
20. For an excellent study of the U.S. Public Safety Program role in Uruguay - and the corresponding increase in torture, repression, and killings by the police - see Clara Aldrighi, "Contrainsurgencia e intervención estadounidense: El programa de asistencia policial de la AID en Uruguay, 1965-1974" paper presented at the University of Salamanca, April 21-23, 2005.
21. See also Martha Huggins, 'Political Policing: The United States and Latin America' (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998);
22. A. J. Langguth, 'Hidden Terrors' (Pantheon Books, 1978);
23. and McCoy, 'A Question of Torture', among many other studies.
24. Campaign for the Abolition of Torture (U.S. human rights group), urgent action flyer, April 23, 1976, from U.S. government Argentina declassification project at www.foia.state.gov.
25. E.V. Walter, 'Terror and Resistance' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969).
26. For a recent quantitative study of the reciprocal relation between government repression and social protest, see Sabine C. Carey, "The Dynamic Relationship Between Protest and Repression," 'Political Research Quarterly', Vol. 59, No. 1 (March 2006): pp. 1-11.
27. Michael Stohl, "The State as Terrorist: Insights and Implications," 'Democracy and Security', 2 (2006): pp. 1-25;
28. Miles D. Wolpin, "State Terrorism and Death Squads in the New World Order," 'Peace Research Review' 12, no. 3 (Dundas, Canada: Peace Research Institute, 1992).
29. Sluka, "Introduction," pp. 30-31.
30. McSherry, "Preserving Hegemony: National Security Doctrine in the Post-Cold War Era" 'NACLA Report on the Americas', Vol. XXXIV, no. 3 (November-December 2000): pp. 26-34;
31. and 'Predatory States'.
32. Bill Rolston, "'An effective mask for terror': Democracy, death squads and Northern Ireland," 'Crime, Law & Social Change' (2005) 44: pp. 181-203.
33. Ted Robert Gurr, "The Political Origins of State Violence and Terror: A Theoretical Analysis," in Michael Stohl and George Lopez, (eds).. 'Governmental Violence and Repression: An Agenda for Research' (Westport: Greenwood press, 1986), pp. 46-48.
34. Martha Huggins, 'Political Policing'.
35. See also Cecilia Menjivar and Néstor Rodríguez, 'When States Kill: Latin America, the U.S., and Technologies of Terror' (University of Texas Press, 2005).
36. Michael Klare and Nancy Stein, "Police Terrorism in Latin America: Secret U.S. Bomb School Exposed," 'NACLA Latin America and Empire Report', Vol. 8, Issue 1 (January 1974): p. 21.
37. Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman, 'The Political Economy of Human Rights', Vols. 1 and 2 (Boston: South End Press, 1979),
38. quoted by Sluka in "Introduction," in 'Death Squad', 8. While death squads existed in other world regions (Africa and India, for example), in Latin America U.S. policy was linked to their formation and sustenance.
39. See also McCoy, 'A Question of Torture', especially 11, chap. 3.
40. Lars Schoultz, "U.S. Foreign Policy and Human Rights Violations in Latin America," 'Comparative Politics', Vol. 13 (1981): pp. 149-70.
41. In the mid-1990s several CIA and School of the Americas training manuals were declassified pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act request. They documented training in torture and coercive interrogation. See my "Tracking the Origins," 'Latin American Perspectives'.
42. Mark Mazzetti, "CIA Worker Says Message on Torture Got Her Fired," 'New York Times', July 22, 2006. Goss acknowledged publicly in 2002 that he had been stationed in Florida during the Cuban missile crisis and that he was involved m recruiting and running agents, presumably Cuban exiles, for the CIA.
43. See, in particular, Article 3 of Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Adopted on 12 August 1949 by the Diplomatic Conference for the Establishment of International Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War, held in Geneva from 21 April to 12, August, 1949.
44. Michael Hirsh and John Barry, "'The Salvador Option': The Pentagon may put Special Forces-led assassination or kidnap teams in Iraq," 'Newsweek' (Jan. 14, 2005), accessed on April 6, 2006 at http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6802629/site/newsweek/
45. Douglas Valentine, 'The Phoenix Program' (New York: William Morrow, 1990), p. 425.
46. See McSherry, 'Predatory States'.
47. See 'Predatory States' for an analysis of this covert U.S. link to Condor;
48. see also Robert White, cable to secretary of state, October 13, 1978, at www.foia.state.gov/documents/StateChile3/000058FD.pdf,
49. and Diana Jean Schemo, "New Files Tie U.S. to Deaths of Latin Leftists in 1970s," 'New York Times', March 6, 2001.
50. For a recent military view of the importance of computerized databases for counterinsurgency, see Lt.- Colonel Lester W. Grau, "Something Old, Something New: Guerrillas, Terrorists, and Intelligence Analysis," 'Military Review' (July-August 2004): pp. 42-49, especially 45.
51. This section draws from Martin Weinstein, 'Uruguay: Democracy at the Crossroads' (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1988), chaps. 3 and 4;
52. Clara Aldrighi, 'La Izquierda Armada' (Montevideo: Trilce, 2005);
53. and 'U.S. Country Study: Uruguay' (Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, n.d.) at www.country-studies.com/uruguay/
54. According to former CIA officer Philip Agee, "the Montevideo station had the typical anti-communist political operations found at other hemisphere stations, the most important of which were effected through Benito Nardone...our squads, often with the participation of off-duty policemen, would break up [leftists'] meetings and generally terrorize them. Torture of communists and other extreme leftists was used in interrogations by our liaison agents in the police. "Philip Agee, 'Inside the Company' (New York: Stonehill, 1975), p. 337.
55. Author interview with former 'Tupamaro' Hiber Conteris, July 25, 2006, New York; see also Mickey Z, "Interview with a 'Tupamaro'," November 23, 2004, accessed February 4, 2006 at www.pressaction.com/news/weblog/full_article/mickeyz11232004/
56. SERPAJ, 'Nunca Más Uruguay', trans. Elizabeth Hempsten (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), p. 8.
57. Alejandro Otero, former police chief in Uruguay, discussed such intelligence gathering in Washington; author interview in Montevideo, August 22, 2005. See also Huggins, Political Policing.
58. Cited in Aldrighi, "Contrainsurgencia," p. 8.
59. Penny Lernoux, 'Cry of the People' (New York: Doubleday, 1980), p. 339.
60. Author interview with Alejandro Otero, Montevideo, August 22, 2005. Langguth identifies Cantrell as a CIA man in 'Hidden Terrors', pp. 233-39;
61. see also Agee, 'Inside the Company', pp. 478, 605.
62. Grupo de Investigaciones Históricas, Sociales y Económicas, 'Las Raices de la Violencia y El Escuadron de la Muerte' (Montevideo: TDE, 1986), p. 9;
63. obtained by author in Montevideo, June 2005.
64. Aldrighi, "Contrainsurgencia," p. 19.
65. Langguth, 'Hidden Terrors', pp. 224, 250-54.
66. Langguth, pp. 250-51, 286.
67. Quoted in William Blum, 'Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II' (Common Courage Press, 1995), excerpt at www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Foreign_Policy/ KillingHope_page.html.
68. Langguth, p. 253.
69. Aldrighi, 'La izquierda armada', p. 60.
70. 'Supra' note 28;
71. Agee, 'Inside the Company', p. 589.
72. E. Howard Hunt, 'Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent' (London: W.H. Allen, 1975), p. 121.
73. Agee, 'Inside the Company', pp. 342, 363, 385.
74. See also Stella Calloni, "Los vuelos de la CIA evocan la Operación Cóndor," 'La Jornada' (Mexico), May 8, 2006.
75. Michael Klare and Nancy Stein, "Police Terrorism in Latin America," p. 21.
76. Huggins, p. 125;
77. Langguth, p. 286.
78. Author meeting with group of former political prisoners in Montevideo, August 12, 2005.
79. Catholic Church, Archdiocese of São Paulo, 'Torture in Brazil', trans. Jaime Wright (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998), p. 14.
80. See 'Hidden Terrors' and Langguth, "Torture's Teachers," 'New York Times', June 11, 1979.
81. Manuel Hevia Cosculluela, 'Pasaporte 11333: Ocho años con la CIA' (Uruguay: Movimiento de Independientes, 1985), pp. 207-209.
82. Langguth, pp. 309-313;
83. Hevia Cosculluela, 'Pasaporte 11333', pp. 290-93.
84. Clara Aldrighi, "La estación montevideana de la CIA," 'Brecha' (Uruguay), (November 25, 2005): 7;
85. conversations with author in Montevideo, July and August, 2005. The execution of Mitrione was dramatized in the 1972 Costa-Gavras film 'State of Siege'.
86. "Campos Hermida y Castiglioni fueron entrenados en 'inteligencia' en EEUU," 'La Hora' (Uruguay), December 30, 1986;
87. obtained by author in SERPAJ archives, Montevideo, in August 2001.
88. For details confirming this CIA role in the IPA see McClintock, 'The American Connection, Volume I: State Terror and Popular Resistance in El Salvador', pp. 57-63.
89. Testimony of former agent Nelson Bardesio in Belgium, cited in José Luis Baumgartner et al, "Desaparecidos," (Centro de Estudios de América Latina, n.d. on my copy), 205.
90. Obtained by author in SERPAJ archives, Montevideo, August 2001.
91. See also Grupo de Investigaciones Históricas, Sociales y Económicas, 'Las Raices', p. 15;
92. Peter Gribbin, "Brazil and CIA," 'Counterspy' (April-May 1979): p. 8.
93. See documents at www.espectador.com/principal/graficos/documentos/aid2/ aid2.htm.
94. See also Langguth, 'Hidden Terrors', pp. 48-51,
95. and Aldrighi, "Contrainsurgencia," 7, regarding Engle's CIA links. On Fontana, see Agee, p. 486.
96. Klare and Stein, "Police Terrorism," pp. 19-20.
97. Nancy Stein, "U.S. Army School for Scoundrels," 'NACLA Latin America & Empire Report', Vol. 8, Issue 3 (March 1974): p. 25.
98. Lorrin Rosenbaum "Government by Torture," 'Worldview' (April 1975): p. 26.
99. Klare and Stein, "Police Terrorism," p. 19;
100. Langguth, pp. 241-43.
101. Roger Rodríguez, "Uruguay no enviará más militares a la terrorífica School of Americas," 'La República' (Uruguay), March 30, 2006.
102. Marcelo Falca, "'Sendic fue el mejor de todos los 'tupas'; yo lo capturé y le salvé la vida," 'La República', March 22, 2004.
103. See also Nelson Caula and Alberto Silva, 'Alto el fuego: FFAA y Tupamaros, 1972-1973', 7th ed. (Montevideo: Rosebud Ediciones, 1993), pp. 275-77.
104. Langguth, p. 235.
105. Typed transcript of 'Tupamaro' interview with Bardesio (fragment), obtained by author in DNII in Montevideo, August 2005.
106. Grupo de Investigaciones Históricas, Sociales y Económicas, 'Las Raices', p. 15.
107. Typed transcript of 'Tupamaro' interview with Bardesio; 'Las Raices', p. 14.
108. Samuel Blixen, "Un Escuadrón ante la Justicia," 'Brecha' (Uruguay), June 15, 1990;
109. Blixen, 'Sendic' (Montevideo: Ediciones Trilce, 2000), p. 236.
110. Typed transcript of 'Tupamaro' interview with Bardesio.
111. Typed transcript of 'Tupamaro' interview with Bardesio; Grupo de Investigaciones Históricas, Sociales y Económicas, 'Las Raices', pp. 10-12.
112. Langguth, p. 245;
113. 'Las Raices', p. 13;
114. "Uruguay Police Agent Exposes U.S. Advisors," 'NACLA Report', Vol. 6, no. 6 (July 1972): p. 24.
115. 'Las Raices', p. 13;
116. "Uruguay Police Agent Exposes U.S. Advisors," 'NACLA Report', (July 1972): pp. 24-25.
117. See "El Escuadrón," testimony of Mario Benítez, as transcribed by Radio 36 of Uruguay, at www.radio36.com.uy/entrevistas/ 2004/07/310704_documento_9.htm.
118. Declassified document, FROM AMEMBASSY MONTEVIDEO, TO SECSTATE WASHDC, "Discussion with Mininterior Sena re Counterterrorism," September 29, 1971.
119. See Aldrighi, "Contrainsurgencia," 23, re Adair's concerns.
120. Author interview with officer in Montevideo, August 22, 2005.
121. U.S. Embassy, Montevideo, to Secretary of State, Joint State/Defense Message, "Seregni, pro-'Frente' press link U.S. to Attacks on 'Frente' Candidates," November 9, 1971, in National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 71;
122. on Operation 30 Hours, see Samuel Blixen, 'Seregni: La mañana siguiente', 2d ed. (Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de Brecha, 1997): pp. 70-74.
123. See Nixon's 1969 speech announcing the doctrine. He stated that Washington would expect "the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense." Accessed August 16, 2006, at http://vietnam.vassar.edu/ doc14.html.
124. National Security Archive, Electronic Briefing Book No. 71 at www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB71/.
125. "Nixon quis Médici à frente do continente," 'Jornal do Brasil', June 21, 2002; National Security Archive documents.
126. "Secret memorandum for Kissinger on his conversation with Brazilian President on December 8," December 10, 1971, in Electronic Briefing Book No. 71.
127. "Secret Memorandum from Kissinger to President Nixon," circa early December 1971, NSA Electronic Briefing Book No. 71.
128. Department of State Telegram, FR: AMEMBASSY BUENOS AIRES, TO: SECSTATE WASHDC, August 27, 1971, "Uruguayan Situation."
129. Department of State Airgram, FROM: AMEMBASSY MONTEVIDEO, TO: STATE, "Review Of Uruguayan Internal Security Situation," December 12, 1972. This U.S. cable, among others, is being used by Uruguayan human rights lawyers as evidence of government control of the death squads in the Castagnetto case. Documents acquired by author in Montevideo, July 2005.
130. Telegram from the U.S. Embassy in Uruguay to the Secretary of State, Montevideo 1109, 114-73, NARA.RG59, box 2662, quoted in Aldrighi, "Contrainsurgencia," 23.
131. See, for example, Blixen, 'Sendic', p. 243.
132. Clara Aldrighi, using declassified U.S. documents, shows the magnitude of U.S.technical, intelligence, and military aid provided to the Uruguayan military in her article, "También en la repression: La injerencia de Estados Unidos," 'Brecha' (Uruguay), n.d., reproduced at http://www.lafogata.org/003latino/latino6/ u13.htm.
133. "Líder tupamaro acusó a un militar y a dos ex-policías por ejecución de los Martirena," 'La República', December 4, 2004.
134. Virginia Martínez, 'Los Fusilados de Abril' (Montevideo: Ediciones de Caballo Perdido, 2002), excerpt at www.quehacer.com.uy/ Uruguay/abril_1972/14_abril_1972.htm;
135. 'Las Raices', 21;
136. Blixen, 'Sendic', p. 243.
137. Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fourth Congress, Second Session, July 27, 1976, 33. A number of congresspersons were deeply concerned about continuing U.S. aid and support for the Uruguayan military regime, and others in the region.
138. CIA, 'The National Intelligence Daily' (Top Secret), June 23, 1976.
139. Circulo Militar, 'El Soldado' (September 1975):13, reviewed by author in Montevideo, August 2005.
140. "Primera Reunión de Trabajo de Inteligencia Nacional: Indice," document no. 00022F 0156, obtained by author in Paraguayan police archives in 1996.
141. Manuel Contreras letter to General Brites [sic], Santiago, Octubre de 1975, doc. Number 0153, obtained by author in the Paraguayan police archives in 1996.
142. Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, July 27, 1976, p. 70.
143. PIT-CNT [labor union confederation of Uruguay], 'Desaparecidos: La coordinación represiva' (Montevideo: Editorial Espacio, 1998), pp. 15-16.
144. "Secretos de la Dictadura," 'Posdata' (Uruguay), no. 85 (April 26, 1996): pp. 14,16.
145. In a historic judgment in September 2006, a Uruguayan judge for the first time indicted Rodríguez Buratti and other Condor operatives for their activities in the 1970s. When police came to arrest him on September 10 Rodríguez Buratti committed suicide, according to Uruguayan press accounts. The commanders of the Uruguayan military attended Rodríguez Buratti's funeral several days later, transforming his death into a protest against the legal judgment and the new human rights policies of Uruguay's socialist government.
146. Roger Rodríguez and Jorge Esteves, "La fiscal Guianze pidió el procesamiento de 10 miembros de la banda de OCOA," 'La República' (Uruguay), August 30, 2006;
147. SOA Watch, "Notorious Graduates from Uruguay," at http://www.soaw.org/new/article.php?id=247.
148. Samuel Blixen, "Cordero torturaba en Argentina," 'Brecha', no. 827 (2001), at www.brecha.com.uy.
149. The law was enacted after the transition to democracy in 1985. As military commanders issued dark threats about upcoming court cases, President Sanguinetti pushed the law through Parliament on December 22, 1986, preempting summonses for police and military officers charged with torture, extrajudicial execution, abduction and "disappearance." A grassroots campaign to overturn the law via a referendum ensued; against all odds, the measure gained thousands of signatures and was put to a vote; it narrowly failed.
150. This section draws on materials sent by Antonio Viana to the author, including various email communications in August 2006; "Aide Memoire" dated August 12, 1981; United Nations, "Communication No. 110/1981," UN Doc. CCPR/C/OP/2 at 148 (1990); "Memorandum" written by Raúl Benítez Caches, police officer of the DNII, on Viana, n.d. (but 1974); Argentine Federal Police, "Exposición de: Antonio Viana Acosta;" and Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Aide Memoire," July 7, 1993.
151. The author is grateful to Viana for his collaboration. Also consulted for this section: 'A Todos Ellos: Informe de Madres y Familiares de Uruguayos Detenidos Desaparecidos' (Montevideo: Madres y Familiaries, 2004), 383-86;
152. Walter Pernias, "Una dupla, de terror," 'Brecha' (Uruguay), July 1, 2006;
153. and "¿Un tercer muerto en Boiso Lanza?" 'La República' (Uruguay), May 16, 2006.
154. Email communications from Antonio Viana to author, September 17 and 18, 2006.
155. Rodolfo Peregrino Fernández, 'Autocrítica policial' (Buenos Aires: El Cid Editor/Fundación para la Democracia en Argentina, 1983), pp. 10, 72.
156. "Protagonista de la Operación Cóndor," 'La Nación' (Argentina), April 29, 2001.
157. Mónica González and Edwin Harrington, 'Bomba en una calle de Palermo' (Santiago, Chile: Editorial Emisión, 1987), pp. 173-74.
158. CELS, "Querella contra militares argentinos por el asesinato de un desaparecido" (on the Logoluso case) Buenos Aires, December 27, 1993, obtained by author in Buenos Aires, 1996; arrest documents and photos in Paraguayan Archives on Landi Gil and Logoluso, obtained by author in Asunción, 1996.
159. See also Alfredo Boccia Paz, Myriam Angélica González and Rosa Palau Aguilar, 'Es mi informe: Los archivos secretos de la policía de Stroessner' (Asunción: CDE), pp. 321-32.
160. Walter Pernias, "La lista de detenidos en Paraguay motiva una nueva investigación," 'Brecha' (Uruguay), September 10, 2005;
161. Roger Rodríguez, "Un 'minucioso' interrogatorio," 'La República' (Uruguay), September 16, 2005.
162. Barrios was "disappeared" in Córdoba, Argentina, in a September 1974 Condor operation.
163. Karina Petroff, "'No pensé que me iban a tirar al agua, pero sí que me podían matar en cualquier momento,"' 'Ultimas Noticias' (Uruguay), August 18, 2005.
164. Department of Defense Intelligence Information Report, "(U) Special Operations Forces (U)," October 1, 1976.
165. "(U) Special Operations Forces (U)," October 1, 1976.
166. María Esther Gilio, "Los niños escuchábamos los gritos de los torturados," 'Página/12' (Argentina), August 12, 2006.
167. "Beatriz Castellonese y Elena Laguna narraron cómo Gavazzo y Cordero las trasladaron ilegalmente a Montevideo," 'La República' (Uruguay), September 20, 2005.
168. See Amnesty International, "Abridged Version of Taped Testimony of Washington Pérez," August 1976, in Argentine Project archive of State Department;
169. Samuel Blixen, "En nombre de la patria y con ánimo de lucro," 'Brecha', no. 823, September 2001.
170. Amnesty International, "Abridged Version," August 1976;
171. see also Documentos Desclasificados web site at www.desclasificados.com.ar/i.php?i=4346.
172. "Confirman operaciones de OCOA en Argentina en busca de botín del PVP," 'La República' (Uruguay), August 16, 2006.
173. Marcelo Falca and Gabriel Mazzarovich, "A Silveira le gustaba violar a la gente joven y a veces también a la vieja," 'La República' (Uruguay), November 3, 2003.
174. Gabriel Mazzarovich, "No sólo fui torturada sino que también fui violada por el coronel Jorge Silveira," 'La República' (Uruguay), November 20, 2003.
175. Róger Rodríguez, "El Goyo Alvarez fue un torturador de niños," 'La República' (Uruguay), April 14, 2004.
176. U.S. State Department, "United States Overseas Internal Defense Policy," (SECRET), September 1962, pp. 10, 28.
177. Sluka, "Introduction: State Terror and Anthropology," pp. 29-32 in 'Death Squad';
178. see also Campbell, pp. 7-14.