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Volumn 76, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 193-228

Intelligence testing at Whittier School, 1890-1920

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC GROUP; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; RACIAL DISPARITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL HISTORY; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

EID: 34249943144     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/phr.2007.76.2.193     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (12)

References (154)
  • 1
    • 34249950277 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Whittier State School was originally established in 1889 as the State Reform School for juvenile Offenders; it opened in 1891. Fifty years later, in 1941, legislators changed the name to Fred C. Nelles School for Boys in honor of Superintendent Nelles, the much beloved administrator whose term spanned from 1912 to 1927, when he died. The State of California shut down the Nelles School in the summer of 2004, citing fiscal deficits. Note on sources and privacy use: According to the California Government Code, Section 12237, as of January 1, 2005, all items seventy-five years or older that are on deposit in the State Archives shall be accessible to the public. This means that all of the records, including photographs, used in this study are open to the public. Therefore, I have kept the original names of all individuals discussed in this article. I identify as Mexican Americans people of Mexican origin and of Mexican descent, including those persons born in the United States a
    • Whittier State School was originally established in 1889 as the State Reform School for juvenile Offenders; it opened in 1891. Fifty years later, in 1941, legislators changed the name to Fred C. Nelles School for Boys in honor of Superintendent Nelles, the much beloved administrator whose term spanned from 1912 to 1927, when he died. The State of California shut down the Nelles School in the summer of 2004, citing fiscal deficits. Note on sources and privacy use: According to the California Government Code, Section 12237, as of January 1, 2005, "all items seventy-five years or older that are on deposit in the State Archives shall be accessible to the public." This means that all of the records, including photographs, used in this study are open to the public. Therefore, I have kept the original names of all individuals discussed in this article. I identify as Mexican Americans people of Mexican origin and of Mexican descent, including those persons born in the United States and with at least one parent of Mexican ancestry; this category also includes those born in Mexico who became naturalized U.S. citizens. I identify as Mexicans those who were born in Mexico and did not self identify as Indian.
  • 2
    • 34249950397 scopus 로고
    • For the contemporaneous definition of moron and feebleminded, see, Boston
    • For the contemporaneous definition of moron and feebleminded, see Lewis S. Terman, The Measurement of Intelligence (Boston, 1916), 6, 79.
    • (1916) The Measurement of Intelligence , vol.6 , pp. 79
    • Terman, L.S.1
  • 3
    • 34249943633 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A feebleminded person, he wrote, was one incapable, because of mental defect existing from birth or from an early age, of competing on equal terms with his normal fellows; or of managing himself or his affairs with ordinary prudence. Ibid., 80.
    • A feebleminded person, he wrote, was one "incapable, because of mental defect existing from birth or from an early age, of competing on equal terms with his normal fellows; or of managing himself or his affairs with ordinary prudence." Ibid., 80.
  • 4
    • 34249946924 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In California, legislators codified this meaning of feebleminded in state law. See, for instance, State of California, Statutes of California and Amendments to the Codes [hereafter cited as California Statutes], 1917, chapter 776, section 16, p. 1626. In contrast to those classed as feebleminded, Terman determined that persons with the intelligence of a child between the ages of three and seven were imbeciles, and those whose intelligence was that of a three-year-old or younger were idiots.
    • In California, legislators codified this meaning of feebleminded in state law. See, for instance, State of California, Statutes of California and Amendments to the Codes [hereafter cited as California Statutes], 1917, chapter 776, section 16, p. 1626. In contrast to those classed as feebleminded, Terman determined that persons with the intelligence of a child between the ages of three and seven were "imbeciles," and those whose intelligence was that of a three-year-old or younger were "idiots."
  • 5
    • 34249939364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For Johnny García's case, see Case File No. 3741, 108 (1920), pp. 88-89, Fred C. Nelles School for Boys (Whittier) Collection, Youth Authority Records, California State Archives, Sacramento, California [hereafter Whittier Collection].
    • For Johnny García's case, see Case File No. 3741, vol. 108 (1920), pp. 88-89, Fred C. Nelles School for Boys (Whittier) Collection, Youth Authority Records, California State Archives, Sacramento, California [hereafter Whittier Collection].
  • 6
    • 34249936401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Whittier was originally established as a coeducational institution and housed boys and girls in separate departments run by separate administrators. In 1913, after much discussion, the Girls' Department was closed and the California School for Girls was opened on Whittier State School grounds until a permanent school was built. Finally, in 1916 the school moved to Ventura where it became known as the Ventura School for Girls. According to psychologist Grace M. Fernald, females at Whittier's Girls' Department received tests as early as 1912 and continued to do so in the mid-1910s at the California School for Girls and, later, at the Ventura School for Girls. I have yet to find the results of any of those tests. For Fernald's statements on girls and testing, see Grace M. Fernald, Report of the Psychological work in the California School for Girls, Journal of Delinquency, 1 1916, 22-31
    • Whittier was originally established as a coeducational institution and housed boys and girls in separate departments run by separate administrators. In 1913, after much discussion, the Girls' Department was closed and the California School for Girls was opened on Whittier State School grounds until a permanent school was built. Finally, in 1916 the school moved to Ventura where it became known as the Ventura School for Girls. According to psychologist Grace M. Fernald, females at Whittier's Girls' Department received tests as early as 1912 and continued to do so in the mid-1910s at the California School for Girls and, later, at the Ventura School for Girls. I have yet to find the results of any of those tests. For Fernald's statements on girls and testing, see Grace M. Fernald, "Report of the Psychological work in the California School for Girls," Journal of Delinquency, 1 (1916), 22-31.
  • 7
    • 0038744180 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For scholarship on the use of intelligence tests to track youth of color in the public schools in the early 1900s, see, for instance, Carlos K. Blanton, From Intellectual Deficiency to Cultural Deficiency: Mexican Americans, Testing, and Public School Policy in the American Southwest, 1920-1940, Pacific Historical Review, 72 2003, 39-62
    • For scholarship on the use of intelligence tests to track youth of color in the public schools in the early 1900s, see, for instance, Carlos K. Blanton, "From Intellectual Deficiency to Cultural Deficiency: Mexican Americans, Testing, and Public School Policy in the American Southwest, 1920-1940," Pacific Historical Review, 72 (2003), 39-62
  • 8
    • 0034360703 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blanton, 'They Cannot Master Abstractions But They Can Often Be Made Efficient Workers': Race and Class in the Intelligence Testing of Mexican Americans and African Americans in Texas During the 1920s, Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 1014-1026
    • Blanton, "'They Cannot Master Abstractions But They Can Often Be Made Efficient Workers': Race and Class in the Intelligence Testing of Mexican Americans and African Americans in Texas During the 1920s," Social Science Quarterly, 81 (2000), 1014-1026
  • 10
    • 0038046750 scopus 로고
    • Racism, Education and the Mexican Community, 1920-1930
    • González, "Racism, Education and the Mexican Community, 1920-1930," Societas, 4 (1974), 287-301
    • (1974) Societas , vol.4 , pp. 287-301
    • González1
  • 12
    • 0041192912 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood: The Educational Plight and Struggle of Mexican Americans in the Southwest
    • Guadalupe San Miguel, Jr., and Richard R. Valencia, "From the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood: The Educational Plight and Struggle of Mexican Americans in the Southwest," Harvard Educational Review 68 (1998), 353-412
    • (1998) Harvard Educational Review , vol.68 , pp. 353-412
    • San Miguel Jr., G.1    Valencia, R.R.2
  • 13
    • 34249931611 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • San Miguel, Jr., Let All of Them Take Heed: Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin, Tex., 1987)
    • San Miguel, Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed": Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas, 1910-1981 (Austin, Tex., 1987)
  • 17
    • 0002049317 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In this article, I borrow the concept of social engineering from Daniel J. Kevles, Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I, Journal of American History, 55 (1968), 565-581.
    • In this article, I borrow the concept of social engineering from Daniel J. Kevles, "Testing the Army's Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I," Journal of American History, 55 (1968), 565-581.
  • 18
    • 34249937230 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to this work, social engineering is the expert application of scientific methods to the social corpus, in ibid., 566.
    • According to this work, social engineering is "the expert application of scientific methods to the social corpus," in ibid., 566.
  • 19
    • 79953371391 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dozens, perhaps hundreds, of studies have been carried out on science and eugenics and their social implications. For this study, the following works have been consulted: Alexandra M. Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America (Berkeley, 2005)
    • Dozens, perhaps hundreds, of studies have been carried out on science and eugenics and their social implications. For this study, the following works have been consulted: Alexandra M. Stern, Eugenic Nation: Faults and Frontiers of Better Breeding in Modern America (Berkeley, 2005)
  • 26
    • 34249937467 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The literature on the Progressive movement in general and educational reform in particular is vast. Among the most useful for this article have been: Mary Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995)
    • The literature on the Progressive movement in general and educational reform in particular is vast. Among the most useful for this article have been: Mary Odem, Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885-1920 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1995)
  • 28
    • 1542389984 scopus 로고
    • William Deverell and Tom Sitton, eds, Berkeley
    • William Deverell and Tom Sitton, eds., California Progressivism Revisited (Berkeley, 1994)
    • (1994) California Progressivism Revisited
  • 34
    • 34249943757 scopus 로고
    • Child Protection in California, 1850-1966: An Analysis of Public Policy
    • For the growing criticism of wayward youth on city streets in the late 1800s, see, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California
    • For the growing criticism of wayward youth on city streets in the late 1800s, see Rino John Patti, "Child Protection in California, 1850-1966: An Analysis of Public Policy" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1967), 40-68,
    • (1967) , pp. 40-68
    • John Patti, R.1
  • 36
    • 34249939249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For evidence of the commitment of children and adolescents to San Quentin in the second half of the nineteenth century, see the San Quentin State Prison Register, Department of Corrections Collection, California State Archives, Sacramento, California. For evidence of the state's support of private orphanages, children's aid societies, and asylums, see Waterman, Address by Hon. R. W. Waterman, 9-10
    • For evidence of the commitment of children and adolescents to San Quentin in the second half of the nineteenth century, see the San Quentin State Prison Register, Department of Corrections Collection, California State Archives, Sacramento, California. For evidence of the state's support of private orphanages, children's aid societies, and asylums, see Waterman, "Address by Hon. R. W. Waterman," 9-10,
  • 38
    • 34249942912 scopus 로고
    • For evidence that school officials appointed boys to positions as officers, see, for instance, 205
    • For evidence that school officials appointed boys to positions as officers, see, for instance, Case File No. 205, vol. 98 (1892), pp. 411-412
    • (1892) , vol.98 , pp. 411-412
    • Case File1
  • 39
    • 34249945589 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Whittier Collection, and Case File No. 531, 99 (1893), pp. 365-366, in ibid.
    • Whittier Collection, and Case File No. 531, vol. 99 (1893), pp. 365-366, in ibid.
  • 40
    • 34249934230 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quote cited in Elmer E. Knox and Norman Fenton, Fred C. Nelles: An Appreciation (Whittier, Calif., 1930), 4.
    • Quote cited in Elmer E. Knox and Norman Fenton, Fred C. Nelles: An Appreciation (Whittier, Calif., 1930), 4.
  • 41
    • 34249948616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. E. McVay, Ben. F. Pearson, and Prescott F. Cogswell, Board of Trustees' Report, Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1912 (Whittier, Calif., 1912) [hereafter Biennial Report... 1912], 4.
    • W. E. McVay, Ben. F. Pearson, and Prescott F. Cogswell, "Board of Trustees' Report," Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1912 (Whittier, Calif., 1912) [hereafter Biennial Report... 1912], 4.
  • 44
    • 34249943998 scopus 로고
    • For evidence of overcrowding, see, Nov. 26
    • For evidence of overcrowding, see San Francisco Post , Nov. 26, 1892.
    • (1892) San Francisco Post
  • 45
    • 34249935647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • News clipping found in Case File No. 440, 99 (1892), pp. 181-182, Whittier Collection.
    • News clipping found in Case File No. 440, vol. 99 (1892), pp. 181-182, Whittier Collection.
  • 46
    • 34249949557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For boys coming down with illnesses, see, for instance, W. V. Coffin, Physician's Report, in Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1908 (Whittier, Calif., 1908) [hereafter Biennial Report ... 1908, n.p. Others called Whittier State School a juvenile penitentiary and a training school for criminals.
    • For boys coming down with illnesses, see, for instance, W. V. Coffin, "Physician's Report," in Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1908 (Whittier, Calif., 1908) [hereafter Biennial Report ... 1908, n.p. Others called Whittier State School a juvenile penitentiary and a training school for criminals.
  • 47
    • 34249947646 scopus 로고
    • Delinquent Boys Individualized,
    • See, Sept
    • See Jesse C. Fenton, "Delinquent Boys Individualized," Sierra Educational News (Sept. 1931), 7
    • (1931) Sierra Educational News , pp. 7
    • Fenton, J.C.1
  • 48
    • 34249945368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Whittier State School, The Whittier Idea: A brief review of the Whittier State School since its founding in 1890 (Whittier, Calif., n.d.), 9.
    • and Whittier State School, The Whittier Idea: A brief review of the Whittier State School since its founding in 1890 (Whittier, Calif., n.d.), 9.
  • 49
    • 34249935646 scopus 로고
    • For the 1903 whipping of, Whittier Collection
    • For the 1903 whipping of Mabel Sylva, a Mexican American girl, see Case File No. 1653, vol. 102 (1903), pp. 509-510, Whittier Collection.
    • (1903) Sylva, a Mexican American girl, see Case File , vol.102 , Issue.1653 , pp. 509-510
    • Mabel1
  • 50
    • 34249951859 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1898 (Whittier, Calif., 1898) [hereafter Biennial Report ... 1898
    • For statements on the ban on corporal punishment, see, 34
    • For statements on the ban on corporal punishment, see T. B. Van Alstyne, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1898 (Whittier, Calif., 1898) [hereafter Biennial Report ... 1898, 34.
    • Van Alstyne, T.B.1
  • 51
    • 34249945056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • That same superintendent claimed that corporal punishment had been reduced in the Boys' Department; see, 5
    • That same superintendent claimed that corporal punishment had been reduced in the Boys' Department; see ibid., 5.
    • Van Alstyne, T.B.1
  • 53
    • 34249933893 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • for Governor Hiram Johnson's request, see Fred C. Nelles, Superintendent's Report, Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1914 (Whittier, Calif., 1914) [hereafter Biennial Report ... 1914, 14.
    • for Governor Hiram Johnson's request, see Fred C. Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1914 (Whittier, Calif., 1914) [hereafter Biennial Report ... 1914, 14.
  • 54
    • 22244448589 scopus 로고
    • Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School
    • For more on Nelles, see, Norval Morris and David J. Rothman, eds, New York
    • For more on Nelles, see Steven L. Schlossman, "Delinquent Children: The Juvenile Reform School," in Norval Morris and David J. Rothman, eds., The Oxford History of the Prison (New York, 1995), 379.
    • (1995) The Oxford History of the Prison , pp. 379
    • Schlossman, S.L.1
  • 55
    • 34249945836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nelles, Superintendent's Report, Biennial Report ... 1912, n.p.
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report ... 1912, n.p.
  • 56
    • 34249950964 scopus 로고
    • Juvenile Court
    • For more on the role of the juvenile court and probation officers in California, see, Los Angeles County, California, Los Angeles, 1912, 11-16
    • For more on the role of the juvenile court and probation officers in California, see Curtis D. Wilbur, "Juvenile Court," in Report and Manual for Probation Officers of the Superior Court acting as Juvenile Court, Los Angeles County, California, 1912 (Los Angeles, 1912), 11-16
    • (1912) Report and Manual for Probation Officers of the Superior Court acting as Juvenile Court
    • Wilbur, C.D.1
  • 57
    • 34249947693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Delinquent Children
    • Wilbur, "Delinquent Children," in ibid., 17-29
    • ibid , pp. 17-29
    • Wilbur1
  • 58
    • 34249934114 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wilbur, Samuel J. Barrows, and W. A. Gates, The Juvenile Courts and Recent Developments in Penology, in ibid., 31-51
    • Wilbur, Samuel J. Barrows, and W. A. Gates, "The Juvenile Courts and Recent Developments in Penology," in ibid., 31-51
  • 59
    • 0004352239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • To date, Odem's is the only book focusing on the juvenile court in Progressive Era California
    • and Odem, Delinquent Daughters. To date, Odem's is the only book focusing on the juvenile court in Progressive Era California.
    • Delinquent Daughters
    • Odem1
  • 60
    • 0003570293 scopus 로고
    • For more on the juvenile court system in Illinois, Colorado, New York, and elsewhere, see, Chicago
    • For more on the juvenile court system in Illinois, Colorado, New York, and elsewhere, see Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (1969; Chicago, 1977)
    • (1969) The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency
    • Platt, A.M.1
  • 64
    • 34249934229 scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • 31
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1914, 31.
    • (1914) Biennial Report
    • Nelles1
  • 65
    • 34249940428 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For comments about solitary confinement, see
    • For comments about solitary confinement, see Fenton, "Delinquent Boys Individualized," 7.
    • Delinquent Boys Individualized , vol.7
    • Fenton1
  • 66
    • 34249951068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1915-1916 (Whittier, Calif., 1916) [hereafter Biennial Report... 1915-1916
    • For Nelles's policies, see
    • For Nelles's policies, see Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report: Whittier State School, 1915-1916 (Whittier, Calif., 1916) [hereafter Biennial Report... 1915-1916], 23-25.
    • Nelles1
  • 68
    • 19144364740 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Making Men: Reform Schools and the Shaping of Masculinity, 1890-1920
    • Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis
    • and Heather A. Pang, "Making Men: Reform Schools and the Shaping of Masculinity, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, 2000).
    • (2000)
    • Pang, H.A.1
  • 69
    • 34249949659 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nelles, Superintendent's Report, Biennial Report... 1912, n.p.
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1912, n.p.
  • 70
    • 34249951068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report... 1915-1916
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1915-1916 23-25, 28-29
    • Nelles1
  • 71
    • 34249937709 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • Biennial Report
    • "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report...1914, 13
    • , vol.1914 , pp. 13
  • 72
    • 34249951068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report... 1915-1916
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1915-1916 23-25, 28-29
    • Nelles1
  • 73
    • 34249947691 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • 13
    • "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report...1914, 13.
    • Biennial Report...1914
  • 74
    • 34249937459 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In a previous study, I traced all escapes and attempted escapes from Whittier State School in the years spanning 1890 and 1920. I found that, in the 1910s, following Nelles's appointment and reforms, the frequency of flights fell by nearly 50 percent. See Miroslava Chávez-García, Youth, Evidence, and Agency: Mexican and Mexican American Youth at Whittier State School, 1890 to 1920, Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies, 32 2006, 55-83
    • In a previous study, I traced all escapes and attempted escapes from Whittier State School in the years spanning 1890 and 1920. I found that, in the 1910s, following Nelles's appointment and reforms, the frequency of flights fell by nearly 50 percent. See Miroslava Chávez-García, "Youth, Evidence, and Agency: Mexican and Mexican American Youth at Whittier State School, 1890 to 1920," Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies, 32 (2006), 55-83.
  • 75
    • 34249934229 scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • 21-22, 29
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1914, 21-22, 29.
    • (1914) Biennial Report
    • Nelles1
  • 76
    • 34249932289 scopus 로고
    • For a succinct overview of this history, see, Palo Alto, Calif
    • For a succinct overview of this history, see J. Harold Williams, A Study of 150 Delinquent Boys (Palo Alto, Calif., 1915).
    • (1915) A Study of 150 Delinquent Boys
    • Harold Williams, J.1
  • 77
    • 34249940954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A French psychologist and a physician, Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, originally developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence test in 1908; American psychologist Henry Herbert Goddard, a leading advocate of Binet's test, popularized it in the United States.
    • A French psychologist and a physician, Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, originally developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence test in 1908; American psychologist Henry Herbert Goddard, a leading advocate of Binet's test, popularized it in the United States.
  • 78
    • 0347428753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on Goddard and intelligence tests, see
    • For more on Goddard and intelligence tests, see Zenderland, Measuring Minds.
    • Measuring Minds
    • Zenderland1
  • 79
    • 34249945252 scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report.
    • For J. Harold Williams's belief in the ability of intelligence tests to produce efficient results, see, 42
    • For J. Harold Williams's belief in the ability of intelligence tests to produce efficient results, see J. Harold Williams, "Report of the Department of Research," Biennial Report...1918, 42.
    • (1918) Report of the Department of Research
    • Harold Williams, J.1
  • 80
    • 34249949193 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on the tests' contents, see Alexandra M. Stern, An Empire of Tests: Psychometrics and the Paradoxes of Nationalism in the Americas, in Ann Laura Stoler, ed., Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History (Durham, N.C., 2006), 560-592.
    • For more on the tests' contents, see Alexandra M. Stern, "An Empire of Tests: Psychometrics and the Paradoxes of Nationalism in the Americas," in Ann Laura Stoler, ed., Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History (Durham, N.C., 2006), 560-592.
  • 81
    • 34249937602 scopus 로고
    • Report of the Department of Research
    • For IQ scales and their meaning as used at Whittier State School, see, Biennial Report
    • For IQ scales and their meaning as used at Whittier State School, see Williams, "Report of the Department of Research," Biennial Report...1915-1916, 57-58, 62, 66.
    • (1915) , vol.57-58 , Issue.62 , pp. 66
    • Williams1
  • 82
    • 34249950871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 241-42, especially footnote 54, Alfred Binet later modified his stance on the role of language.
    • According to Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 241-42, especially footnote 54, Alfred Binet later modified his stance on the role of language.
  • 84
    • 34249935414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fernald's quotes cited in Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 240-241.
    • Fernald's quotes cited in Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 240-241.
  • 85
    • 34249942385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In time, Binet too questioned the results of the tests, particularly regarding differences among social classes. Upper-class children in France, he admitted, had verbal skills superior to those of their lower-class counterparts. Rich children, he wrote, lived in a superior environment from the point of view of language, they hear a more correct language and one that is more expressive. Binet is cited in ibid. 241-242.
    • In time, Binet too questioned the results of the tests, particularly regarding differences among social classes. Upper-class children in France, he admitted, had verbal skills superior to those of their lower-class counterparts. Rich children, he wrote, lived "in a superior environment from the point of view of language, they hear a more correct language and one that is more expressive." Binet is cited in ibid. 241-242.
  • 86
    • 34249945182 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The other observations come from Blanton, 'They Cannot Master Abstractions,' 1016
    • The other observations come from Blanton, "'They Cannot Master Abstractions,'" 1016
  • 87
    • 34249934440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • for more on the larger critiques of intelligence tests, see
    • for more on the larger critiques of intelligence tests, see Kevles, "Testing the Army's Intelligence," 574-576.
    • Testing the Army's Intelligence , pp. 574-576
    • Kevles1
  • 88
    • 34249940429 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Goddard cited in Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 250.
    • Goddard cited in Zenderland, Measuring Minds, 250.
  • 89
    • 34249944586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Most psychologists generally said little about language. As historian Leila Zenderland has observed, by 1917 professional psychologists kept debates about intelligence and the relationship to language skill, schooling, and social environment...largely hidden from the public and amongst themselves. Ibid.
    • Most psychologists generally said little about language. As historian Leila Zenderland has observed, by 1917 professional psychologists kept debates about intelligence and the "relationship to language skill, schooling, and social environment...largely hidden from the public and amongst themselves." Ibid.
  • 90
    • 34249951981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Williams, Report of the Department of Research, Biennial Report...1915-1916, 60-61.
    • Williams, "Report of the Department of Research," Biennial Report...1915-1916, 60-61.
  • 91
    • 34249931229 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report...1914
    • 41, 35
    • Williams, "Psychological Survey of the Whittier State School," Biennial Report...1914, 41, 35.
    • Williams1
  • 92
    • 33744935143 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on Mendelian ideas and hereditarianism, see
    • For more on Mendelian ideas and hereditarianism, see, for instance, Stern, Eugenic Nation, 14-18
    • Eugenic Nation , pp. 14-18
    • for instance1    Stern2
  • 95
    • 34249931229 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biennial Report... 1914
    • 8, 15
    • Williams, "Psychological Survey of the Whittier State School," Biennial Report... 1914, 8, 15.
    • Williams1
  • 96
    • 34249948034 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the studies Williams cited as support for his own work, see
    • For the studies Williams cited as support for his own work, see ibid. 30-33, 38-39.
    • Williams1
  • 102
    • 34249945946 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Unlike in Texas, where some intelligence testers made color and class distinctions among lighter- and darker-skinned as well as among working- and middle-class Mexicans they examined, researchers in California made no overt attempt to classify their subjects in a similar vein. In this context, social scientists' racial categories were more rigid and stark in California than those developed in Texas. Williams and his colleagues did not perceive such a complex portrait of the Mexican population. For more on the findings in Texas, see Blanton, 'They Cannot Master Abstractions,' 1014-1026.
    • Unlike in Texas, where some intelligence testers made color and class distinctions among lighter- and darker-skinned as well as among working- and middle-class Mexicans they examined, researchers in California made no overt attempt to classify their subjects in a similar vein. In this context, social scientists' racial categories were more rigid and stark in California than those developed in Texas. Williams and his colleagues did not perceive such a complex portrait of the Mexican population. For more on the findings in Texas, see Blanton, "'They Cannot Master Abstractions,'" 1014-1026.
  • 104
    • 34249946803 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In that study, Williams presented pie charts indicating the proportion of feebleminded boys among whites, blacks, and Mexicans but did not give precise percentages. Those figures are found in his later publication, A Study of 150 Delinquent Boys.
    • In that study, Williams presented pie charts indicating the proportion of feebleminded boys among whites, blacks, and Mexicans but did not give precise percentages. Those figures are found in his later publication, A Study of 150 Delinquent Boys.
  • 106
    • 34249939714 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on the Mexican problem, particularly as it was conceived and dealt with in California in the early 1900s, see, for example, Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 225-226
    • For more on the "Mexican problem," particularly as it was conceived and dealt with in California in the early 1900s, see, for example, Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), 225-226
  • 109
    • 34249939250 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For variations of this hierarchy, particularly as they worked out in Texas, see Blanton, 'They Cannot Master Abstractions,' 1014-1026; for a study claiming to have developed a comparative racial intelligence hierarchy at the national level, see William H. Sheldon, Intelligence of Mexican Children, School and Society, 19 (Feb. 2, 1924), 139-142.
    • For variations of this hierarchy, particularly as they worked out in Texas, see Blanton, "'They Cannot Master Abstractions,'" 1014-1026; for a study claiming to have developed a comparative racial intelligence hierarchy at the national level, see William H. Sheldon, "Intelligence of Mexican Children," School and Society, 19 (Feb. 2, 1924), 139-142.
  • 110
  • 113
    • 34249935297 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nelles's statements are found in Nelles, Wards of the State: Suggestions Regarding their Scientific Segregation and Re-Distribution into Proper Groups for Effective Treatment, Biennial Report... 1914 11-12
    • Nelles's statements are found in Nelles, "Wards of the State: Suggestions Regarding their Scientific Segregation and Re-Distribution into Proper Groups for Effective Treatment," Biennial Report... 1914 11-12
  • 114
    • 34249945253 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • for evidence of Nelles's belief in hereditarianism, see Nelles, Report of Superintendent, Biennial Report... 1915-1916, 6-8, 14.
    • for evidence of Nelles's belief in hereditarianism, see Nelles, "Report of Superintendent," Biennial Report... 1915-1916, 6-8, 14.
  • 115
    • 34249934229 scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • For more on Nelles's role in the establishment of the Pacific Colony, see
    • For more on Nelles's role in the establishment of the Pacific Colony, see Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1914, 8-10
    • (1914) Biennial Report , pp. 8-10
    • Nelles1
  • 116
    • 34249951737 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • Biennial Report
    • "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1918, 10
    • , vol.1918 , pp. 10
  • 119
    • 34249933408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quote cited in Nelles, Superintendent's Report, Biennial Report... 1914, 30.
    • Quote cited in Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1914, 30.
  • 120
  • 122
    • 34249940557 scopus 로고
    • Superintendent's Report
    • Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Biennial Report... 1918, 4-6.
    • (1918) Biennial Report , pp. 4-6
    • Nelles1
  • 125
    • 34249934440 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on the Army tests and outcomes, see
    • For more on the Army tests and outcomes, see Kevles, "Testing the Army's Intelligence," 565-581
    • Testing the Army's Intelligence , pp. 565-581
    • Kevles1
  • 126
    • 84928506480 scopus 로고
    • Race, Region, and Education: An Analysis of Black and White Scores on the 1917 Army Alpha Intelligence Tests
    • John L. Rury, "Race, Region, and Education: An Analysis of Black and White Scores on the 1917 Army Alpha Intelligence Tests," Journal of Negro Education, 57 (1988), 51-65
    • (1988) Journal of Negro Education , vol.57 , pp. 51-65
    • Rury, J.L.1
  • 128
    • 34249940822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the testing of all children, see González, Racism, Education, and the Mexican Community in Los Angeles, 293-294, and Nelles, Superintendent's Report, Bennial Report... 1918, 4-9.
    • On the testing of all children, see González, "Racism, Education, and the Mexican Community in Los Angeles," 293-294, and Nelles, "Superintendent's Report," Bennial Report... 1918, 4-9.
  • 130
    • 34249947142 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For examples of the analyses derived from the tests given to students, see Kimball Young, Mental Differences in Certain Immigrant Groups Eugene, Ore, 1922
    • For examples of the analyses derived from the tests given to students, see Kimball Young, Mental Differences in Certain Immigrant Groups (Eugene, Ore., 1922)
  • 131
    • 0038955418 scopus 로고
    • Racial Differences in the Mental and Physical Development of Mexican Children
    • Franklin C. Paschal, "Racial Differences in the Mental and Physical Development of Mexican Children," Comparative Psychology Monographs 3 (1926), 1-76
    • (1926) Comparative Psychology Monographs , vol.3 , pp. 1-76
    • Paschal, F.C.1
  • 133
    • 34249931608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • These and all figures come from my tabulation of the extant data in the Whittier State School case files for the first thirty years of the school's existence. These records include some 3,816 case files
    • These and all figures come from my tabulation of the extant data in the Whittier State School case files for the first thirty years of the school's existence. These records include some 3,816 case files.
  • 134
    • 34249947381 scopus 로고
    • For Henry Pierce, see 3585
    • For Henry Pierce, see Case No. 3585, vol. 107 (1919), p. 314,
    • (1919) , vol.107 , pp. 314
    • Case1
  • 135
    • 34249937232 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Whittier Collection; for Arthur Pierce, see Case No. 3586, 107 (1919), p. 315, in ibid.
    • Whittier Collection; for Arthur Pierce, see Case No. 3586, vol. 107 (1919), p. 315, in ibid.
  • 136
    • 34249932195 scopus 로고
    • For the statute describing the population of boys allowable at, chapter 53, section 15, p
    • For the statute describing the population of boys allowable at Preston, see California Statutes, 1889, chapter 53, section 15, p. 103.
    • (1889) California Statutes , pp. 103
    • Preston1    see2
  • 137
    • 34249937231 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For Leonard Horn's case, see Case File No. 3174, 106 (1916), pp. 285-286, Whittier Collection.
    • For Leonard Horn's case, see Case File No. 3174, vol. 106 (1916), pp. 285-286, Whittier Collection.
  • 138
    • 34249948266 scopus 로고
    • For the law enabling superintendents to transfer wards, see, chapter 631, section 8, p
    • For the law enabling superintendents to transfer wards, see California Statutes, 1915, chapter 631, section 8, p. 1232.
    • (1915) California Statutes , pp. 1232
  • 139
    • 34249931228 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the statute defining the process to transfer a boy or girl from a state school to a state hospital, see California Statutes, 1917, chapter 776, section 34, p. 1630
    • For the statute defining the process to transfer a boy or girl from a state school to a state hospital, see California Statutes, 1917, chapter 776, section 34, p. 1630.
  • 140
    • 34249943505 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For James López's case, see Case File No. 3238, 106 (1916), pp. 349-350, Whittier Collection.
    • For James López's case, see Case File No. 3238, vol. 106 (1916), pp. 349-350, Whittier Collection.
  • 141
    • 34249945054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For studies on the segregation of Mexican-origin children in Mexican schools and the struggles to overturn that practice, see, for instance, George I. Sánchez, Concerning Segregation of Spanish-Speaking Children in the Public Schools, Inter American Education Occasional Papers, 9 Austin, Tex, 1951
    • For studies on the segregation of Mexican-origin children in Mexican schools and the struggles to overturn that practice, see, for instance, George I. Sánchez, "Concerning Segregation of Spanish-Speaking Children in the Public Schools," Inter American Education Occasional Papers, 9 (Austin, Tex., 1951)
  • 142
    • 34249950005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • San Miguel, Jr., and Valencia, From the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood
    • San Miguel, Jr., and Valencia, "From the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to Hopwood"
  • 143
    • 34249938634 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • San Miguel, Jr., Let All of Them Take Heed
    • San Miguel, Jr., "Let All of Them Take Heed"
  • 145
    • 34249932419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a dramatic reenactment of that same struggle in San Diego County, see The Lemon Grove Incident, produced and written by Paul Espinosa and directed by Frank Christopher, 58 min., Cinema Guild, 1985, available on videocassette.
    • For a dramatic reenactment of that same struggle in San Diego County, see The Lemon Grove Incident, produced and written by Paul Espinosa and directed by Frank Christopher, 58 min., Cinema Guild, 1985, available on videocassette.
  • 147
    • 34249943156 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For Joe López's case, see Case File No. 3304, 107 (1917), pp. 33-34, Whittier Collection.
    • For Joe López's case, see Case File No. 3304, vol. 107 (1917), pp. 33-34, Whittier Collection.
  • 148
    • 34249939821 scopus 로고
    • Changes in the Nature of the Population at Whittier State School
    • For Nelles's comments, see
    • For Nelles's comments, see Nelles, "Changes in the Nature of the Population at Whittier State School," Journal of Delinquency, 9 (1925), 231-232.
    • (1925) Journal of Delinquency , vol.9 , pp. 231-232
    • Nelles1
  • 149
    • 34249936142 scopus 로고
    • chapter 53, section 12, p
    • California Statutes, 1889, chapter 53, section 12, p. 102
    • (1889) California Statutes , pp. 102
  • 151
    • 34249949085 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more on the connection between culture and low educational performance in the 1930s, see Blanton, From Intellectual Deficiency to Cultural Deficiency for more on the perceived links between youth of Mexican descent and criminality in the 1940s, see Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley, 1999)
    • For more on the connection between culture and low educational performance in the 1930s, see Blanton, "From Intellectual Deficiency to Cultural Deficiency" for more on the perceived links between youth of Mexican descent and criminality in the 1940s, see Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police, and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley, 1999)
  • 152
    • 34249936290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Eduardo Obregón Pagán, Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime Los Angeles (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2003).
    • and Eduardo Obregón Pagán, Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime Los Angeles (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2003).
  • 153
    • 0009158704 scopus 로고
    • The Flapper and the Chaperone: Historical Memory among Mexican-American Women
    • For works that examine Mexican and Mexican American youth in the pre-World War II era, see, Donna Gabaccia, ed, Westport, Conn
    • For works that examine Mexican and Mexican American youth in the pre-World War II era, see Vicki L. Ruiz, "The Flapper and the Chaperone: Historical Memory among Mexican-American Women," in Donna Gabaccia, ed., Seeking Common Ground: Multidisciplinary Studies of Immigrant Women in the United States (Westport, Conn., 1992), 141-157
    • (1992) Seeking Common Ground: Multidisciplinary Studies of Immigrant Women in the United States , pp. 141-157
    • Ruiz, V.L.1


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