Human rights and intellectual property protection in the TRIPS Era

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 403-430

  Cullet, Philippe ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN RIGHTS; INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS; SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY; TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE;

EID: 34249942906     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2007.0014     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217A (III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess. (Resolutions, pt. 1), at 71, art. 27, U.N. Doc. A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. 127 (Supp. 1949).
2. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Marrakesh, 15 Apr. 1994, 33 I.L.M. 1197 (1994) [hereinafter TRIPS Agreement].
3. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976) [hereinafter ICESCR].
4. See, e.g., Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du citoyen Annex, Constitution de la République française (Constitution du 4 octobre 1958);
5. Jakob Cornides, Human Rights and Intellectual Property: Conflict or Convergence?, 7 J. WORLD INTELL. PROP. 135 (2004).
6. Cf. Orit Fischman Afori, Human Rights and Copyright: The Introduction of Natural Law Considerations into American Copyright Law 14 FORDHAM INTELL. PROP. MEDIA & ENT. L.J. 497 (2004).
7. See, e.g., THEO R.G. VAN BANNING, THE HUMAN RIGHT TO PROPERTY (2002).
8. Id. at 194.
9. This is, for instance, the case in The Right to Adequate Housing, General Comment No. 4, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 6th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1991/4 (1992). General Comment No. 17: Rights of the Child (art. 24) (7 Apr. 1989) (as analyzed below).
10. Universal Declaration, supra note 1, arts. 17, 27.
11. See infra Part IV. B, Towards an Alternative Reading of Article 15(1)(c).
12. See generally, MATTHEW C.R. CRAVEN, THE INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS: A PERSPECTIVE ON ITS DEVELOPMENT (1995);
13. MAGDALENA SEPÚLVEDA, THE NATURE OF THE OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS (2003).
14. ICESCR, supra note 3, art. 15(1).
15. Draft Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Commission on Human Rights, Report of the 10th Session, U. N. ECOSOC, 18th Sess., Supp. 7, U. N. Doc. E/2573 - U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/705 (1954).
16. Draft International Covenant on Human Rights, Report of the 3rd Committee, U.N. Doc. A/3764 (1957).
17. United Nations, Third Committee Summary Record of Meetings, U. N. Doc. A/C.3/SR.797 (1957).
18. The amendment was accepted by thirty-nine states including most Western European and Latin American countries and rejected by nine countries from the communist bloc. Twenty-four countries abstained, including the United States. See Draft International Covenant on Human Rights, Report of the 3rd Committee, U.N. Doc. A/3764 (1957).
19. ICESCR, supra note 3, art. 2(1).
20. Cf. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Nature of States Parties Obligations (Art. 2, par. 1): 14112190, General Comment 3, 5th Sess. ¶14, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.7 (1990) [hereinafter General Comment 3] where the Committee indicates that international cooperation for development "is particularly incumbent upon those States which are in a position to assist others in this regard."
21. Principle 7, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, 14 June 1992, Rio de Janeiro, 31 I.L.M. 874 (1992).
22. See generally Christopher D. Stone, Common but Differentiated Responsibilities in International Law, 98 AM. J. INT'L L.. 276 (2004).
23. Cf. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, art. 6bis, 9 Sept. 1886, S. Treaty Doc. No. 99-127 1161 U.N.T.S. 3.
24. Cf. TRIPS Agreement, supra note 2, art. 7.
25. See, e.g., Sam Ricketson, Intellectual Property and Human Rights, in COMMERCIAL LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS 187 (Stephen Bottomley & David Kinley eds., 2001);
26. Robert L. Ostergard, Jr., Intellectual Property: A Universal Human Right?, 21 HUM. RTS. Q. 156 (1999).
27. See also the statement by a member of the ICESCR Committee that Article 15(1)(c) is "clearly intended to protect the creators of objects such as patents and trademarks." Substantive Issues Arising in the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. On Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 33rd Sess., ¶10, U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/2/2004/SR.51 (2004).
28. Ostergard, Jr., supra note 22 at 175, who argues that under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights intellectual property is designated as a universal human right, and acknowledges that this is problematic, for instance, because the registered trademark for a multinational corporation is accorded the same importance and protection as a patent for medicinal purposes.
29. European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature, 4 Nov. 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221, Europ. T.S. No. 5 (entered into force 3 Sept. 1953);
30. Winston P. Nagan, International Intellectual Property, Access to Health Care, and Human Rights: South Africa v. United States, 14 FLA. J. INT'L L. 155, 187 (2002) (notes that this provision does not add up to a human right to ownership).
31. See generally ALI RIZA ÇOBAN, PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS WITHIN THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS (2004).
32. Smith Kline and French Laboratories v. The Netherlands, App. No. 12633/ 87,60 Eur. Comm'n Hum. Rts., Dec. & Rep. 77, 79 (1990).
33. British-American Tobacco v. The Netherlands, Eur. Ct. H.R., 21 Eur. H.R. Rep. 409 (1995).
34. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, art. 17(2), 2000 J.O. (C 364) 12.
35. Marc Billiau, La propriété intellectuelle-droit de l'homme?, Colloque Propriété Intellectuelle et Droits de l'Homme (21 June 2004)(on file with author).
36. Thomas Allen, Commonwealth Constitutions and the Right Not to be Deprived of Property, 42 INT'L & COMP. L.Q. 523, 526 (1993).
37. See, e.g., Dwarkadas Shriniwas v. Sholapur Spinning & Weaving Co., AIR 38 1951 (Bom.) 86, 90.
38. See INDIA CONST., art. 300A: Introduced by the Forty-Fourth Amendment, 1978.
39. See, e.g., M.P. JAIN, INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAw (Nagpur: Wadhwa, 5th ed. 2003).
40. S. AFR. (Interim) CONST. 1993.
41. Id.
42. See generally, O.H. Dean, The Case for the Recognition of Intellectual Property Rights in the Bill of Rights, 60 TYDSKRIF VIR HEDENDAAGSE ROMEINS-HOLLANDSE REG 105 (1997).
43. In re Certification of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC) at ¶75 (S. Afr.).
44. See, e.g., Andrew Beckerman-Rodau, Patent Law: Balancing Profit Maximization and Public Access to Technology, 4 COLUM. SCI. & TECH. L. REV. 1 (2002).
45. See generally DUNCAN MATTHEWS, GLOBALISING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS: THE TRIPS AGREEMENT (2002).
46. See, e.g., Audrey R. Chapman, The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection, 5 J. INT'L ECON. L. 861 (2002);
47. UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP), HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2000 (2000).
48. See, e.g., Alicia Ely Yamin, Not Just a Tragedy: Access to Medications as a Right Under International Law, 21 B.U. INT'L L.J. 325 (2003);
49. Sarah Joseph, Pharmaceutical Corporations and Access to Drugs: The "Fourth Wave" of Corporate Human Rights Scrutiny, 25 HUM. RTS. Q. 425 (2003).
50. See, e.g., Jérôme Dumoulin, Les Brevets et le Prix des Médicaments, REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT ÉCONOMIQUE 45 (2000).
51. See, e.g., Chapman, supra note 40, at 872.
52. Besides the examples mentioned in the text after this note, see also Access to Medication in the Context of Pandemics such as HIV/AIDS, C.H.R. Res 2001/33, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 57th Sess., Supp. No. 3, U.N. Doc. E/2001/23-E/CN.4/2001/167; Intellectual Property and Human Rights, C.H.R. Res 2001/21, U.N. ESCOR, Sub-Comm'n on Hum Rts., 26th Mtg., U.N. Doc. E/2001/23-E/CN.4/Sub.2/RES/2001/21 (2001).
53. See generally David Weissbrodt & Kell Schoff, Human Rights Approach to intellectual Property Protection: The Genesis and Application of Sub-Commission Resolution 2000/7, 5 MINN. INTELL. PROP. REV. 1 (2003).
54. Intellectual Property Rights and Human Rights, C.H.R. Res. 2000/7, U.N. ESCOR, Sub-Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., 25th Mtg., U.N. Doc. E/ CN.4/Sub.2/Res/2000/7 (2000).
55. Report on the Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third and Twenty-Fourth Sessions U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., Supp. No. 2, at 91, U.N. Doc. E/2001/22-E/C.12/2000/21 (2000).
56. Report on the Twenty-Fifth, Twenty-Sixth and Twenty-Seventh Sessions: Statement by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights on Human Rights and Intellectual Property, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., Annex XIII, ¶4, U.N. Doc. E/2002/22-UC.12/2001/17 (2001) [hereinafter 2001 Statement].
57. Id. ¶15.
58. Id. ¶12.
59. The Impact of the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights on Human Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 52d Sess., ¶23, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/13 (2001).
60. See, e.g., James Thuo Gathii, Rights, Patents, Markets and the Global AIDS Pandemic, 14 FLA. J. INT'L L. 261 (2002).
61. ICESCR, supra note 3, art. 12.
62. On the right to health, see generally, BRIGIT C.A. TOBBES, THE RIGHT TO HEALTH AS A HUMAN RIGHT IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1999).
63. Substantive Issues Arising in the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., General Comment No. 14, ¶17, U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2000/4 (2000) [hereinafter General Comment 14].
64. See WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION, PRIMARY HEALTH CARE: REPORT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON PRIMARY HEALTH CARE 2, 4 (1978 (text of Art. VII of the Declaration of Alma-Ata).
65. See, e.g., Access to Medication in the Context of Pandemics such as HIV/AIDS Tuberculosis and Malaria, C.H.R. Res. 2005/23, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 61st Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/RES/2005/23 (2005).
66. See, e.g., Dumoulin, supra note 42, at 53.
67. See, e.g., JOINT REPORT OF THE WHO, UNICEF, THE UNAIDS SECRETARIAT AND MEDECINS SANS FRONTIÈRES: SOURCES AND PRICES OF SELECTED DRUGS AND DIAGNOSTICS FOR PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV/AIDS (2002).
68. For the case of India over the past decade, see, for example, Jean O. Lanjouw & Margaret MacLeod, Pharmaceutical R&D for Low-Income Countries: Global Trends and Participation by Indian Firms, 40 ECON. & POL'Y. WKLY 4232 (2005).
69. Concerning the debate over price regulation of medicines in the context of the new patent regime in India, see, for example, Anurag Bhargava S. Srinivasan, Price Regulation of Essential Medicines, THE HINDU, 17 Oct. 2006, available at http://www.thehindu.com/2006/10/17/stories/2006101702601000.htm.
70. General Comment 14, supra note 54.
71. General Comment 3, supra note 18, ¶9.
72. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, adopted 22 May 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331, (entered into force 27 Jan. 1980), U.N. Doc. A/CONF.39/27, reprinted in 8 I.L.M. 679 (1969).
73. See, e.g., Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Montreal Convention on Biological Diversity, pmbl., adopted 20 Jan. 2000, 39 I.L.M. 1027 (2000);
74. International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, pmbl., adopted 3 Nov. 2001, available at http://www.ukabc.org/ITPGRe.pdf.
75. Cf. JOOST PAUWELYN, CONFLICT OF NORMS IN PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW: HOW WTO LAW RELATES TO OTHER RULES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 322 (2003). Pauwelyn concludes that the modification of human rights treaties by WTO treaties may have difficulties passing the test required by the Vienna Convention. Vienna Convention, supra note 63, art. 41 (1)(b).
76. See, e.g., LAURI HANNIKAINEN, PEREMPTORY NORMS (JUS COGENS) IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT, CRITERIA, PRESENT STATUS (1988).
77. Vienna Convention 1969, supra note 63, art. 53.
78. HANNIKAINEN, supra note 66, at 429, noting that "[i]n my view there is no doubt that contemporary international law has reached a stage in which it has the prerequisites for the existence of peremptory obligations upon States to respect basic human rights."
79. See, e.g., International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, art. 4, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 ( entered into force 23 Mar. 1976).
80. DOMINIQUE CARREAU, DROIT INTERNATIONAL 84 (7th ed. 2001).
81. Limited human rights-related activities include, for instance, the Panel Discussion to Commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Geneva, 9 Nov. 1998) organized by the World Intellectual Property Organization and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. See WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANIZATION: INTELLECTUAI PROPERTY AND HUMAN RIGHTS (1998), available at http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/hr/paneldiscussion.
82. See 2001 Statement, supra note 48, ¶2.
83. Summary Record of the 50th Meeting, U.N. ESCOR, U.N. Docs., Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 33d Sess., U.N. DOC. E/C. 12/2004/SR.50 (2004);
84. Summary Record of the 51st Meeting, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 33d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2004/SR.51 (2004);
85. Summary Record of the 52d Meeting, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 33d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/2004/SR.52 (2004).
86. The Right of Everyone to Benefit From the Protection of the Moral and Material Interests Resulting From any Scientific, Literary or Artistic Production of Which He or She is the Author, General Comment No. 17, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 35th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/C. 12/GC/17 (2006) [hereinafter General Comment 171.
87. Id. ¶1.
88. Id. ¶2.
89. Id. ¶3.
90. Id. ¶4.
91. See infra Part II. B, addressing the developments in Europe.
92. General Comment 17, supra note 74, ¶24.
93. Id. ¶9.
94. Id. ¶7.
95. See Steven Cherensky, A Penny for their Thoughts: Employee-Inventors, Preinvention Assignment Agreements, Property, and Personhood, 81 CAL. L. REV. 597 (1993);
96. Peter Drahos & John Braithwaite, Who Owns the Knowledge Economy? - Political Organising Behind TRIPS, THE CORNER HOUSE, Sept. 2004, at 1, available at http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk/ item.shtml?x=85821.
97. General Comment 17, supra note 74, ¶35.
98. Id. ¶10.
99. The notion of "adequate standard of living" is in fact found at id. ¶30.
100. Id. ¶31.
101. Id. ¶32.
102. Id.
103. See, e.g., PHILIPPE CULLET, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (2005).
104. See, e.g., CLAUDE COLOMBET, PROPRIÉTÉ LITTÉRAIRE ET ARTISTIQUE ET DROITS VOISINS (Paris: Dalloz, 8ème éd. 1997).
105. See, e.g., PIERRE-YVES GAUTIER, PROPRIÉTÉ LITTÉRAIRE ET ARTISTIQUE (Paris: PUF, 3ème éd. 1991).
106. General Comment 17, supra note 74, ¶2.
107. Id. ¶4.
108. Id. ¶15.
109. Id. ¶4.
110. Id. ¶35.
111. Id.
112. On biopiracy, see, for example, Pat Roy Mooney, Why we call it Biopiracy, in RESPONDING TO BIOPROSPECTING: FROM BIODIVERSITY IN THE SOUTH TO MEDICINES IN THE NORTH 37 (Hanne Svarstad & Shivcharn S. Dhillion eds., 2000).
113. See, e.g., Decisions Adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity at its Fourth Meeting, at 58 (Decision IV/9), U.N. Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/4/27 (1998);
114. World intellectual Property Organization, Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore: Second Draft Report, 8th Sess., WIPO Doc. WIPO/GRTKF/IC/8/15 Prov 2 (5 Oct. 2005).
115. See, e.g., Grant E. Isaac & William A. Kerr, Bioprospecting or Biopiracy?: Intellectual Property and Traditional Knowledge in Biotechnology Innovation, 7 J. WORLD INTELL. PROPERTY 35 (2004).
116. See, e.g., Law No. 7788, Biodiversity Law, art. 10(6), 1998 (Costa Rica).
117. See, e.g., CULLIET, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra note 90, ch. 5.
118. See, e.g., Editorial, Community or Commodity: What Future for Traditional Knowledge?, SEEDLING, July 2004, at 1.
119. See, e.g., Law No. 27811, Law Introducing a Protection Regime for the Collective Knowledge of Indigenous Peoples Derived from Biological Resources, Official Journal, 10 Aug. 2002 (Peru).
120. Working Group of the Commission on Human Rights to Elaborate a Draft Declaration in Accordance with Paragraph 5 of the General Assembly Resolution 49/214 of 23 December 1994, Res. 2006/2, art. 31 (Annex);
121. Report to the General Assembly on the First Session of the Human Rights Council, UN GAOR, Hum. Rts. Council, 1st Sess., U.N. Doc. A/ HRC/1/L.10 (2006).
122. On questions related to the appropriation of public domain knowledge, see, for example, CULLET, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, supra note 90, at 295-305.
123. 2001 Statement, supra note 48, ¶8.
124. See, e.g., N.S. Gapalakrishnan, Protection of Traditional Knowledge: The Need for a Sui Generis Law in India, 5 J. WORLD INTELL. PROPERTY 725 (2002).