'Bitterness behind every smiling face': Community development and Canada's first nations, 1954-1968

Canadian Historical Review

Volumn 83, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 58-84

  Shewell, Hugh ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34249858602     PISSN: 00083755     EISSN: 17101093     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3138/CHR.83.1.58     Document Type: Review

References (67)

1. John L. Tobias, 'Protection, Civilization, Assimilation: An Outline History of Canada's Indian Policy,' Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6, 2 (1976): 13-30;
2. reprinted in A.L. Getty and Antoine S. Lussier, eds., As Long as the Sun Shines and Water Flows: A Reader in Canadian Native Studies (Vancouver: UBC Press 1983), 40. The term 'Indian' in this article refers to those peoples defined and registered as Indian under the Canadian Indian Act (RSC 1988). Indians in Canada usually refer to themselves according to their specific cultural and tribal nationhood or, generically, as First Nations' peoples.
3. Roger Gibbins and J. Rick Ponting, 'Historical Overview and Background,' in J. Rick Ponting, ed., Arduous Journey: Canadian Indians and Decolonization (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1986), 25;
4. Tobias, 'Protection', 40-1
5. J. Rick Ponting and Roger Gibbins, Out of Irrelevance: A Socio-Political Introduction to Indian Affairs in Canada (Scarborough: Butterworths 1980), 12,
6. cited in Robert Cunningham, 'Community Development at the Department of Indian Affairs in the 1960s: Much Ado about Nothing' (MA thesis, University of Saskatchewan 1997), 30-1
7. Alan C. Cairns, Citizens Plus: Aboriginal Peoples and the Canadian State (Vancouver UBC Press 2000), 77-9
8. Sally M. Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy: The Hidden Agenda, 1968-1970 (Toronto: Uiversity of Toronto Press 1981), 20, 24-8
9. 'The Canadian, Indian' in the Economist, reprinted in the Montreal Gazette, 28 July 1944,
10. cited in Hugh Shewell, 'Origins of Contemporary Indian Social Welfare in the Canadian Liberal State: An Historical Case Study in Social Policy, 1873-1965' (PhD dissertation. University of Toronto 1995), 385
11. Transcript of speech by Minister of Mines and Resources T.A. Crerar at the Convention of Indians, Ottawa, 7 June 1944, cited in Hugh Shewell, 'Jules Sioui and Indian Political Radicalism in Canada, 1943-1944,' Journal of Canadian Studies 34, 3 (1999): 232
12. James S. Frideres, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts, 5th ed. (Scarborough: Prentice Hall/Allyn and Bacon Canada 1998), 17;
13. J.R. Miller, Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens: A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada, rev. ed. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1991), 221-2;
14. Gibbins and Ponting, 'Historical Overview and Background,' 26
15. Frideres, Aboriginal Peoples in Canada, 226-7,
16. cited in Cunningham, 'Community Development at the Department of Indian Affairs,' 32-3
17. H.B. Hawthorn, ed., A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada: A Report on Economic, Political, Educational Needs and Policies, vol. 1 (Ottawa: Indian Affairs Branch, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development 1966), 312-42, 386-403;
18. Shewell, 'Origins,' 562, 582
19. Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy, 46
20. Dr George F. Davidson, personal interview, Dec. 1992, cited in Shewell, 'Origins,' 634, n. 52
21. Margaret Payne, 'Indians Train for Leadership' (June 1962), in Canada, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Canadian Citizenship Branch, Citizenship Projects among Indians (Ottawa: Queen's Printer 1965), 10, 12-13;
22. 'Leadership Development among Indians' (1964), no author, in Citizenship Projects, 16-17;
23. NA, RG 10, CR series, vol. 8463, file 1/23-21, pt 1, 'Indian Social Leaders,' paper prepared by P.F. Grant, 6 May 1953, 3-4
24. Jessa Chupik-Hall, '"Good Families Do Not Just Happen": Indigenous People and Child Welfare Services in Canada' (MA thesis, Trent University 2001), 52-5, 63
25. Globe and Mail, 17 Oct. 1961
26. Hawthorn, ed., Contemporary Indians of Canada, 367-70;
27. Frank Cassidy, 'Approaches to Welfare Reform in Indian Communities,' in Frank Cassidy and Shirley B. Seward, eds., Alternatives to Social Assistance in Indian Communities (Halifax: Institute for Research on Public Policy 1991), 9;
28. Hawthorn assembled a team of social and political scientists, legal experts, social workers, and educators to work on and write the report. See Sally M. Weaver, 'The Hawthorn Report: Its Use in the Making of Canadian Indian Policy,' in Noel Dyck and James B. Waldram, eds., Anthropology, Public Policy, and Native Peoples in Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1993).
29. Weaver, 'The Hawthorn Report,' 76-7
30. H.B. Hawthorn, ed., 'The Politics of Indian Affairs,' abridged from chapter 17, Contemporary Indians of Canada, in Getty and Lussier, As long as the Sun Shines, 173
31. Canada, Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Indian Affairs Branch, 'The Big Picture,' Statement Prepared by Walter Rudnicki for Federal-Provincial Conference on Poverty, Nov. 1965,
32. and C.N.C. Roberts, document to file, 'Consolidation Sheet,' 10 June 1963;
33. vol. 6925, file 1/29-1, pt 9, 'Request to Treasury Board for "Adoption of provincial or local municipal welfare rates and regulations for Indians,"' no date, about 18 Dec. 1963
34. Weaver, 'The Hawthorn Report,' 76-8
35. Isbister interview, 680, n. 131;
36. Tom Kent, A Public Purpose (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1988), 238
37. Rudnicki interview, 682, 696
38. NA, RG 10, CR series, vol. 8193, file 1/29-6, pt 1, 'Community Development Course,' and Dr T.R. Batten, University of London Institute of Education, to Rudnicki, 6 Feb. 1964;
39. Peter Marris and Martin Rein, Dilemmas of Social Reform: Poverty and Community Action in the United States, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1973).
40. K.D. Uppal, personal communication 1994, cited in Cunningham, 'Community Development at the Department of Indian Affairs,' 60
41. Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy, 27, n. 15
42. Globe and Mail, 31 Oct. 1964;
43. E.R. McEwen, Community Development Services for Canadian Indian and Metis Communities (Toronto: Indian-Eskimo Association of Canada 1968), 16-17
44. Hawthorn, Contemporary Indians of Canada, 344-58, 386-403
45. Hugh Shewell and Annabella Spagnut, 'The First Nations of Canada: Social Welfare and the Quest for Self-Government,' in John Dixon and Robert P. Scheurell, eds., Social Welfare with Indigenous Peoples (London: Routledge 1995), 23
46. Hawthorn, 'The Politics of Indian Affairs,' 177-8
47. and in Peter McFarlane, Brotherhood to Nationhood: George Manuel and the Making of the Modem Indian Movement (Toronto: Between the Lines 1993), 75.
48. George Manuel and Michael Posluns, The Fourth World: An Indian Reality (Toronto: Collier-Macmillan 1974), 130
49. Some accounts describe Toombs as a psychiatrist. See Manuel and Posluns, The Fourth World, 135.
50. McFarlane, Brotherhood to Nationhood, 79-82
51. Cunningham, 'Community Development at the Department of Indian Affairs,' 72-3
52. Hugh Shewell, 'The Use of Social Assistance for Employment Creation on Indian Reserves: An Appraisal,' in Cassidy and Seward, eds., Alternatives to Social Assistance, 19-24
53. Helen Buckley, From Wooden Ploughs to Welfare: Why Indian Policy Failed in the Prairie Provinces (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1992), 102-3;
54. Gerry Piper, cited in Manuel and Posluns, The Fourth World, 152
55. M. Lipsky, Street-Level Bureaucracy (New York: Russell Sage 1980);
56. Richard Weatherley, Reforming Special Education: Policy Implementation from State Level to Street Level (Cambridge: MIT Press 1979).
57. cited in Christopher Ham and Michael Hill, The Policy Process in the Modem Capitalist State (Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books 1984), 136-42.
58. The overall analysis is derived from Ham and Hill, The Policy Process, 139-40.
59. Buckley, From Wooden Ploughs to Welfare, 102-3
60. Weaver, 'The Hawthorn Report and Indian Policy,' 80-1
61. Hawthorn, Contemporary Indians of Canada, 285, 310;
62. Shewell and Spagnut, "The First Nations of Canada,' 29-32
63. Canada, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (Ottawa: Canada Communication Group Publishing 1996),
64. cited in Alan C. Cairns, Citizens Plus, chap. 4, 136-42;
65. 'Indian Self-Government in Canada,' Minutes and Proceedings of the Special Committee on Indian Self-Govemment, No. 40, 12 and 20 Oct. 1983,
66. cited in Cairns, Citizens Plus, 175-88
67. Taiaiake Alfred, Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto (Toronto: Oxford University Press 1999), 59, 60, 63, 144-5