Technology as a public culture in the eighteenth century: The artisans' legacy

History of Science

Volumn 45, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 135-153

  Hilaire Pérez, Liliane ^a  

^a University of Paris Cité   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34249816173     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327530704500202     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Joel Mokyr, The gifts of Athena: Historical origins of the knowledge economy (Princeton and Oxford, 2002); idem, "The intellectual origins of modern economic growth", Journal of economic history, lxv (2005), 285-351. For syntheses of the factors of growth in the historiography, see Maxine Berg, The age of manufactures 1700-1820 (London, 1985), Pat Hudson, The industrial revolution (Sevenoaks and New York, 1992), and Patrick Verley, La révolution industrielle 1760-1870 (Paris, 1997).
2. Edwin T. Layton, "Technology as knowledge", Technology and culture, xv (1974), 31-41; David F. Channell, "Engineering science as theory and practice", Technology and culture, xxix (1988), 98-103; Rachel Laudan, "Natural alliance or forced marriage? Changing relations between the histories of science and technology", Technology and culture, xxxvi suppl. (1995), S17-S28; Jacques Guillerme and Jan Sebestick, "Les commencements de la technologie", Thalès, xii (1968), 1-72, reprinted in Documents pour l'histoire des techniques, new series, i (2006); Hélène Vérin, La gloire des ingénieurs: L'intelligence technique du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1993); and Jean-Louis Le Moigne, Le constructivisme (Paris, 1994-2003).
3. Jean-Louis Le Moigne and Hélène Vérin, " Sur le processus d'autonomisation des sciences du génie", in De la technique à la technologie, Cahiers science-technologie- société; (Paris, 1984), 42-55.
4. Daryl M. Hafter, "Philippe de Lasalle: From mise-en-carte to industrial design", Winterthur portfolio, xii (1977), 139-64; Leslie E. Miller, "Paris-Lyon-Paris; Dialogue in the design and distribution of patterned silks in the 18th century", in Robert Fox and Anthony Turner (eds), Luxury trades and consumerism in Ancien Régime Paris (Aldershot, 1998), 63-96.
5. Pamela O. Long, Openness, secrecy, authorship: Technical arts and the culture of knowledge from Antiquity to the Renaissance (Baltimore, 2001); Pascal Brioist, "Les cercles intellectuels de Londres, XVIe-XVIIe siècle", Ph.D., European Institute (Florence), 1993; Larry Stewart, The rise of public science: Rhetoric, technology, and natural philosophy in Newtonian Britain, 1660-1750 (Cambridge, 1992); Christine MacLeod, Inventing the industrial revolution: The English patent system, 1660-1800 (Cambridge, 1988); and Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, L'invention technique au siècle des Lumières (Paris, 2000).
6. Le Moigne and Vérin, "Sur le processus d'autonomisation des sciences du génie" (ref. 3).
7. See Layton quoting Friedrich Rapp: "the engineering sciences possess a prescriptive character" and "provide mere hypothetical imperatives", in "Science as a form of action the role of the engineering sciences", Technology and culture, xxix (1988), 82-97.
8. Nathan Rosenberg, "Factors affecting the diffusion of technology", Explorations in economic history, x (1972), 3-33; Maxine Berg, "From imitation to invention; Creating commodities in the eighteenth century", Economic history review, lx (2002), 1-30; idem, "New commodities, luxuries and their consumers in eighteenth-century England", in Maxine Berg and Helen Clifford (eds), Consumers and luxury: Consumer culture in Europe 1650-1850 (Manchester and New York, 1999), 63-85; Helen Clifford, "Concepts of invention, identity and imitation in the London and provincial metal-working trades, 1750-1800", Journal of design history, xii (1999), 241-55; John Styles, "Manufacturing, consumption and design in eighteenth-century England", in John Brewer and Roy Porter (eds), Consumption and the world of goods (London and New York, 1993), 527-44; Anthony Turner, "Mathematical instrument-making in early modern Paris", in Luxury trades and consumerism ... (ref. 4), 63-96; and Catherine Lanoë, La poudre et le fard: Une histoire des cosmétiques de la Renaissance aux Lumières (Seyssel, forthcoming).
9. Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Diderot's views on artists' and inventors' rights: Invention, imitation and reputation", The British journal for the history of science, xxxv (2002), 129-50.
10. Joseph Moxon, Mechanick exercices: or the doctrine of handiworks applied to smithing, joinery, carpentry, turning, bricklaying (London, 1703; 1st edn, 1677).
11. Joost Mertens,"Technology as the science of the industrial arts: Louis-Sébastien Lenormand (1757-1837) and the popularization of technology", History and technology, xviii (2002), 203-31; idem, "Les Annales de l'industrie (1820-1827): A technological laboratory for the industrial modernization of France", History and technology, xx (2004), 153-63.
12. Roger Hahn, The anatomy of a scientific institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley, 1971); Daniel Roche, Le siècle des Lumières en province: Académies et académiciens provinciaux, 1680-1789 (Paris, 1978); Eric Brian, La mesure de l'Etat: Administrateurs et géomètres au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1994); MacLeod, Inventing the industrial revolution (ref. 5); Hilaire-Pérez, L'invention technique au siècle des Lumières (ref. 5).
13. On networks and subcontracting, see Daniel Roche, La culture des apparences: Une histoire du vêtement XVII- XVIII siècle (Paris, 1989); Maxine Berg, "Commerce and creativity in eighteenth-century Birmingham", in idem (ed.), Markets and manufactures in early industrial Europe (London, 1991), 173-204; Helen Clifford, "The myth of the maker: Manufacturing networks in the London goldsmiths trade 1750-1790", in Kenneth Quickenden and Neal A. Quickenden (eds), Silver and jewellery: Production and consumption since 1750 (Birmingham, 1995), 5-12; Giorgio Riello, "Strategies and boundaries: Subcontracting and the London trades in the long eighteenth century", Enterprise & society (forthcoming); and Lien B. Luu, Immigrants and the industries of London 1500-1700 (Aldershot, 2005).
14. William Eamon, Science and the secrets of nature: Books of secrets in medieval and early modern culture (Princeton, 1994); Hélène Vérin, "La réduction en art et la science pratique au XVIe siècle", in Robert Salais, Elisabeth Chatel and Dorothée Rivaud-Danset (eds), Institutions et conventions: La ré flexivité de l'action économique (Paris, 1998), 119-44; and Pascal Brioist, "La révolution des techniques à la Renaissance", in Gérald Chaix (ed.), L'Europe à la Renaissance, 1470-1560 (Paris, 2002), 141-62.
15. Antoine Picon, "Towards a history of technological thought", in Robert Fox (ed.), Technological methods and terms in the history of technology (Amsterdam, 1996), 37-49; idem, "Matière et travail: La classification des arts et métiers de l'Encyclopé die", in Sylviane Albertan-Coppola and Anne-Marie Chouillet (eds), La matière et l'homme dans l'Encyclopédie (Paris, 1998), 235-46.
16. Christine MacLeod, "The European origins of British technological predominance", in Leandro Prados de la Escosura (ed.), Exceptionalism and industrialism: Britain and its European rivals, 1688-1815 (Cambridge, 2004), 111-26; Peter Jones, '"England expects...': Trading in liberty in the age of Trafalgar", in Malcom Crook, William Doyle and Alan Forrest (eds), Enlightenment and revolution: Essays in honour of Norman Hampson (Aldershot, 2004), 187-203; Michel Cotte, De l'espionnage à la veille industrielle (Besançon, 2005); Roger Smith, "The Swiss connection: International networks in some eighteenth-century luxury trades", Journal of design history, xvii (2004), 123-39; and Liliane Hilaire-Pérez and Catherine Verna, "Dissemination of technical knowledge in the Middle Ages and the early modern history: New approaches and methodological issues", Technology and culture, xlvii (2006), 536-65.
17. Margaret C. Jacob, Scientific culture and the making of the industrial West (Oxford, 1997); Stewart, The rise of public science (ref. 5); Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Les sociabilités industrielles en France et en Angleterre au XVIIIe siècle: Réseaux, institutions, enjeux", in Serge Benoît, Gérard Emptoz and Denis Woronoff (eds), Encourager l'innovation en France et en Europe: Autour du bicentenaire de la Société d'Encouragement pour l'Industrie Nationale (Paris, 2006), 203-40.
18. Agustf Nieto-Galan, "The use of natural dyestuffs in eighteenth-century Europe", Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, xlvi (1996), 23-38; and Margaret C. Jacob and David Reid, "Culture et culture technique des premiers fabricants de coton de Manchester", Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, 1 (2003), 131-53.
19. On reassessing artisans' part in the Industrial Revolution, see Natacha Coquery, Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, Line Sallmann and Catherine Verna (eds), Artisans, industrie: Nouvelles révolutions du Moyen Âge à nos jours (Lyon, 2004); and Liliane Hilaire-Pérez and Catherine Lanoë, "Pour une relecture de l'histoire des métiers: Les savoirs des artisans en France au XVIII siècle", in Mélanges en l'honneur de Daniel Roche (Paris, forthcoming). On guilds and innovation, see Stephan R. Epstein, "Craft guilds, apprenticeship and technological change in pre-modern Europe", Journal of economic history, liii (1998), 684-713; and Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Inventing in a world of guilds: The case of silk fabrics in eighteenth-century Lyon", in Stephan R. Epstein and Marten Praak (eds), Guilds, innovation, and the European economy, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, forthcoming).
20. Ian Inkster, "Finding artisans: British and international patterns of technological innovation, 1790-1914", in Artisans, industrie (ref. 19), 69-92.
21. For the growing complexity of institutional practices in the French world of guilds, see Philippe Minard, "Les corporations en France au XVIIIe siècle: Métiers et institutions", in Steven L. Kaplan and Philippe Minard (eds), La France, malade du corporatisme? XVIIle-XXe siècles (Paris, 2004), 39-51; Clare H. Crowston, " L'apprentissage hors des corporations: Les formations professionnelles alternatives à Paris sous l'Ancien Régime", Annales: Histoire, sciences sociales, lx (2005), 409-42; and Alain Thillay, Le faubourg Saint-Antoine et ses "faux ouvriers ":La liberté du travail à Paris aux XVII et XVIII siècles (Seyssel, 2002).
22. French national archives (Centre Historique des Archives Nationales; hereafter CHAN): F/12/2259. Details in Hilaire-Pérez, L'invention technique (ref. 5), 63, 70, 137.
23. Such attempts were made in new technical centres in Paris, like the Quinze-Vingts hospital in the 1780s and the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers during the Revolution, both under direction of the mechanic Claude-Pierre Molard. For the debates on the part played by the senses in cognition and the subsequent change of the status of the expert for legitimating inventions, see Marie Thébaud-Sorger, "L'air du temps. L' aérostation: savoirs et pratiques à la fin du XVIIIe siècle", Ph.D. thesis, Paris, 2004.
24. Patrice Bret, "Les oubliés de Polytechnique en Egypte: Les artistes mécaniciens de la commission des sciences et des arts", in Scientifiques et sociétés pendant la Révolution et l'Empire (Paris, 1990), 497-514.
25. Patrice Bret, L'État, l'armée, la science: L'invention de la recherche publique en France (1763-1830) (Rennes, 2002), 110-13, 119-22.
26. Ibid., 92, 95, 124, 189; Hilaire-Pérez, L'invention technique (ref. 5), 152, 172-3, 183, 216; Daniel Goimard, "Edme Régnier, premier conservateur du musée d'Artillerie", Revue de la Société des Amis du Musée de l'Armée, xciv (1987), 33-37; and idem, "Edme Régnier, maître armurier (1751-1825), inventeur ou contrefacteur?", La tour de l'Orle- d'Or, ii (1984), 4-8.
27. Antoine Picon, "Gestes ouvriers, opérations et processus techniques: La vision du travail des encyclopédistes", Recherches sur Diderot et l'Encyclopédie, xiii (1992), 131-47.
28. Ken Alder, Engineering the revolution: Arms and enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, 1997); and Bret, L'État, l'armée, la science (ref. 24), chap. 4.
29. CHAN: T/160/23, T*/160/4, T*/160/5.
30. We could also mention the cluster of projects for reforming artisanal training, from the royal drawing school by Jean-Jacques Bachelier (1766) to the locksmiths' school in Paris and to the Montgolfier brothers' scheme to educate skilled workforce (1784): Renaud d'Enfert, L'enseignement du dessin en France: Figure humaine et dessin géométrique (1750-1850) (Paris, 2003); Hilaire-Pérez, L'invention technique (ref. 5), 153; and Leonard N. Rosenband, Papermaking in eighteenthcentury France (Cambridge, MA, 2000).
31. Hilaire-Pérez, L'invention technique (ref. 5).
32. Minard, "Les corporations en France" (ref. 20), 45.
33. Steven L. Kaplan, La fin des corporations (Paris, 2001).
34. Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge: La genèse de la pensée libérale en France au XVIIIe siècle (Montreuil, 1989).
35. Epstein, "Craft guilds, apprenticeship" (ref. 19), 697-8.
36. Carlo M. Belfanti, "Guilds, patents, and the circulation of technical knowledge: Northern Italy during the early modern age", Technology and culture, lxv (2004), 569-89. For the eighteenth century, see Luisa Dolza and Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Inventions and privileges in the eighteenth century: norms and practices. A comparison between France and Piedmont", History of technology, xxiv (2002), 21-44.
37. Charles F. Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Stories, strategies, structures: Rethinking historical alternatives to mass production", in idem (eds), World of possibilities: Flexibility and mass production in Western industrialization (Cambridge, 1997), 1-33, p. 23.
38. Steven L. Kaplan and Philippe Minard, "Le corporatisme, idées et pratiques: Les enjeux d'un débat incessant", in La France (ref. 21), 5-31, p. 14.
39. Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Les examens d'inventions au XVIIIe siècle", in Eric Brian and Christiane Demeulenaere-Douyère (eds), Règlement, usages et science dans la France de l'absolutisme (Paris, 2002), 309-21.
40. Hilaire-Pérez, "Inventing in a world of guilds" (ref. 19).
41. CHAN: F/12/2201.
42. Alain Cottereau, "The fate of collective manufactures in the industrial world: The silk industries of Lyons and London, 1800-1850", in World of possibilities (ref. 37), 75-152, p. 144.
43. Alain Cottereau, "La désincorporation des métiers et leur transformation en 'publics intermédiaires' : Lyon et Elbeuf, 1790-1815", in La France (ref. 21), 97-145.
44. Neil McKendrick, John Brewer and J. H. Plumb, The birth of a consumer society: The commercialization of eighteenth-century England (London, 1982); LornaWeatherhill, Consumer behaviour and material culture in England 1660-1760 (London, 1988); Roche, La culture des apparences (ref. 13); Berg and Clifford (eds), Consumers and luxury (ref. 8); Maxine Berg and Elisabeth Eger (eds), Luxury in the eighteenth century: Debates, desires and delectable goods (Basingstoke, 2003); and Maxine Berg, Luxury and pleasure in eighteenth-century Britain (Oxford, 2005).
45. Helen Clifford, "The king's arms and feathers': A case study exploring the networks of manufacture operating in the London goldsmiths' trade in the eighteenth century", in David Mitchell (ed.), Goldsmiths, silversmiths and bankers: Innovation and the transfer of skill, 1550-1750 (Stroud, 1995), 84-95.
46. Helen Clifford, "In defence of the toyshop: The intriguing case of George Willdey and the Huguenots", Proceedings of the Huguenot Society, xxvii (1999), 171-88; Smith, "The Swiss connection" (ref. 16); Christopher Hartop, "Art and industry in 18th-century London: English silver 1680-1760 from the Alan and Simone Hartman Collection", Proceedings of the Huguenot Society, xxvii (1998), 50-63; Luu, Immigrants and the industries of London (ref. 13); idem, "Assimilation or segregation: Communities of alien craftsmen in London in the sixteenth century", in Graham C. Gibbs and Randolph Vigne (eds), The strangers 'progress: Integration and disintegration of the Huguenot and Walloon refugee community, 1567-1889 (Proceedings of the Huguenot Society, xxvi (1995)), 160-72.
47. André Doyon and Lucien Liaigre, Jacques Vaucanson, mécanicien de génie (Paris, 1966).
48. Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Transferts technologiques, droit et territoire: Le cas franco-anglais au XVIIIe siècle", Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, xliv (1997), 547-79; John R. Harris, Industrial espionage and technology transfer: Britain and France in the 18th-century (Aldershot, 1998).
49. Stewart, The rise of public science (ref. 5).
50. Liliane Hilaire-Pérez and Marie Thébaud-Sorger, "Les techniques dans l'espace public: Publicité des inventions et littérature d'usage en France et en Angleterre au XVIIIe siècle", Revue de synthèse, ii (2006), 393-428.
51. Maxine Berg and Helen Clifford, "Commerce and the commodity: Graphic display and selling new consumer goods in 18th-century England", in Michael North and David Ormrod (eds), Art markets in Europe, 1400-1800 (Aldershot, 1998), 187-200; Michael Snodin and John Styles, Design and the decorative arts: Britain 1500-1900 (London, 1998); and Claire Walsh, "The advertising and marketing of consumer goods in eighteenth-century London", in Clemens Wischermann and Elliott Shore (eds), Advertising and the European city: Historical perspectives (Aldershot, 2000), 79-95.
52. Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Technology, curiosity and utility in France and in England in the eighteenth century", in B. Bensaude-Vincent and C. Blondel (eds), Science and spectacle in the 18th century (Aldershot, forthcoming).
53. Richard D. Altick, The shows of London (London, 1978); Roy Porter and Mary M. Roberts, Pleasure in the eighteenth century (London, 1996); Ann Bermingham and John Brewer (eds), The consumption of culture, 1600-1800 (London, 1997); Natacha Coquery (ed.), La boutique et la ville: Commerces, commerçants, espaces et clientèles XVI-XX siècle (Tours, 2000); and Stéphane Van Damme, Paris, capitale philosophique de la Fronde à la Révolution (Paris, 2004).
54. "The room of this coffee shop is simply decorated; what is noticeable is the way people are served. The feet of the tables are made of two empty cylinders, which prolongation communicates with the laboratory underneath. To get what you desire, it is sufficient to draw a ring fit in the front of each cylinder: this ring is attached to a bell which calls on the laboratory: then a valve (soupape) opens out in the table to collect the order: this valve immediately closes down & opens only again to give way to a double store maid", Almanach du Palais-royal utile aux voyageurs pour l'année 1786 (Paris, 1785), 139. The use of a technical vocabulary for a curiosity device must be stressed. It reminds one of Cox's contriver of the Peacock describing the technicalities of the automata, not only its beautiful effects (Yuna Zek and Roger Smith, "The Hermitage peacock: How an eighteenth century automaton reached St Petersburg", Antiquarian horology, 2005, 699-715). Economy, utility and curiosity were intricate. See also Simon Schaffer, "Enlightened automata", in William Clark, Jan Golinski and Simon Schaffer (eds), The sciences in enlightened Europe (Chicago, 1999), 126-65, and Thébaud-Sorger, L'air du temps (ref. 23), 119, 126-7.
55. Bodleian Library: catalogue of lotteries, letter of 12 January 1774.
56. Bodleian Library: catalogue of lotteries, 1773 (item 73226).
57. Zek and Smith, "The Hermitage peacock" (ref. 54).
58. Marcia Pointon, "Dealer in magic: James Cox's jewelry museum and the economics of luxurious spectacle in late-eighteenth-century London", in Neil De Marchi and Crauford D. W. Goodwin (eds), Economic engagements with art (History of political economy, xxxi (1999)), 423-51.
59. Zek and Smith, "The Hermitage peacock" (ref. 54), 704.
60. "That the fitness of any system or machine to produce the end for which it was intended, bestows a certain propriety and beauty upon the whole, and renders the very thought and contemplation of it agreeable, is so very obvious that nobody has overlooked it", Adam Smith, The theory of moral sentiments (Glasgow, 1759; Glasgow edition of the works and correspondence of Adam Smith (Indianapolis, 1982), i, 179).
61. Eugene Ferguson, Engineering and the mind's eye (Cambridge, MA, 1992); idem, "The mind's eye: Nonverbal thought in technology", Science, cxcvii (1977), 827-36.
62. Serge Chassagne, Le coton et ses patrons, 1760-1840 (Paris, 1991), 251.
63. Lyon Municipal Archives: 77 WP 001. As the guild officials put it, "here the eye can judge, swiftly, what the mind takes a long time to grasp even in the clearest and most methodical reports".
64. Hélène Vérin, "La technologie comme 'science autonome'", Documents pour l'histoire des techniques, new series, i (2006), forthcoming.
65. Thébaud-Sorger, L'air du temps (ref. 23).
66. Hilaire-Pérez, "Technology, curiosity and utility" (ref. 52).
67. Ben Marsden and Crosbie Smith, Engineering empires: A cultural history of technology in nineteenth-century Britain (Basingstoke, 2005), 7.
68. Hilaire-Pérez and Thébaud-Sorger, "Les techniques dans l'espace public" (ref. 50); idem, "Les techniques dans la presse d'annonces au XVIII siècle en France et en Angleterre: Réseaux d'information et logiques participatives", in Patrice Bret, Konstantinos Chatzis and Liliane Hilaire-Pérez (eds), Des techniques dans la presse à la presse technique, 1750-1950 (Paris, forthcoming).
69. "The advertising, instructions, and repair manuals that come with the new machines are intended to be convincing documents, and the images in them suggest their technological sophistication and, more important, their technological rationality": Steven Lubar, "Representation and power", Technology and culture, xxxvi suppl. (1995), S54-S81, p. S69. See also James A. Bennett "Shopping for instruments in Paris and London", in Pamela H. Smith and Paula Findlen (eds), Merchants and marvels: Commerce, science, and art in early modern Europe (New York, London, 2002), 370-95.
70. Luc-Viencent Thiéry, Guide des amateurs et des étrangers voyageurs à Paris, ou description raisonnée de cette ville et de tout ce qu'elle contient de remarquable (Paris, 1786-88), 220-1.
71. We must mention studies in America, but not concerning early modern history: Lubar, "Representation and power" (ref. 69); Joseph J. Corn, "Educating the enthusiast: Print and the popularization of technical knowledge", in John L. Wright (ed.), Possible dreams: Enthusiasm for technology in America (Dearborn (Mich.), Henry Ford Museum, and Greenfield Village, 1992); Edwards W. Stevens, "Technology, literacy, and early industrial expansion in the United States", History of education quarterly, xxx (1990), 523-44.
72. Royal Society of Arts: guard book XII.
73. Patrice Bret, "La Méditerranée médiatrice des techniques: Regards et transferts croisés durant l'expédition d'Egypte (1798-1801)", in Marie-Noëlle Bourguet, Daniel Nordman, Vassilis Anayotopoulos and Maroula Sinarellis (eds), Enquêes en Méiterrané: Les expéditions françaises d'Egypte, de Morée et d'Algérie (Athènes, 1999), 79-101.
74. Maxine Berg, "French fancy and cool Britannia: The fashion markets of early modern Europe", Proceedings of the Istituto Internationale di Storia Economica E Datini, xxxii (2000), 1-36.
75. Liliane Hilaire-Pérez, "Cultures techniques et pratiques de l'échange, entre Lyon et le Levant: Inventions et réseaux au XVIIIe siècle", Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, xlix (2002), 89-114.
76. Alain Cottereau, '"Esprit public' et capacité de juger", in Alain Cottereau and Paul Ladrière (eds), Pouvoir et légitimité: Figures de l'espace public (Paris, 1992), 239-73.
77. Lissa Roberts, "A world of wonders, a world of one", in Merchants and marvels (ref. 69), 309-411.
78. Le Moigne and Vérin, "Sur le processus d'autonomisation des sciences du génie" (ref. 3); David F. Channell, "The harmony of theory and practice: The engineering science of W. J. M. Rankine", Technology and culture, xxiii (1982), 40-52; Robert G. W. Anderson, '"What is technology?': Education through museums in the mid-nineteenth century", The British journal for the history of science, xxxv (1992), 169-84; and Ben Marsden, "Engineering science in Glasgow: Economy, efficiency and measurement as prime movers in the differenciation of an academic discipline", The British journal for the history of science, xxxv (1992), 319-46.