'Pre-history' of International Relations in Japan: Yanaihara Tadao's dual perspective of empire

Millennium: Journal of International Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 301-309

  Nakano, Ryoko ^a  

^a NANZAN UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34249801244     PISSN: 03058298     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/03058298070350021101     Document Type: Article

References (66)

1. The names of Japanese individuals follow the Japanese custom in which the family name precedes the given name.
2. Takashi Inoguchi and Paul Bacon, 'The Study of International Relations in Japan: Towards a More International Discipline', International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 1 (2001): 1-20.
3. Fred Dallmayr, 'Beyond Monologue: For a Comparative Political Theory', Perspectives on Politics, 2, no. 2 (June 2004): 249-57.
4. Roxanne L. Euben, Enemy in the Mirror: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Limits of Modern Rationalism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 9.
5. See, for example, Rosemary Foot, John Gaddis and Andrew Hurrell (eds.), Order and Justice in International Relations (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). See also Review of International Studies, 27, no. 5 (December 2001).
6. Hoffman emphasises the political pre-eminence of the United States as the most important factor in the establishment of International Relations as an academic discipline in this country. The increase of US power and influence after 1945 encouraged intellectual efforts to establish a 'genuine scientific enterprise'. Stanley Hoffman, 'An American Social Science: International Relations', in Janus and Minerva: Essays in the Theory and Practice of International Politics (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), Ch. 1.
7. Iver Neumann and Ole Waever (eds.), The Future of International Relations: Masters in the Making? (London: Routledge, 1997).
8. Arlene Tickner, 'Seeing IR Differently: Notes from the Third World', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 32, no. 2 (2003): 296.
9. Kamikawa Hikomatsu, an emeritus professor of Tokyo University and the major initiator of the foundation of the Japan Association of International Relations, was a specialist in diplomatic history. He and Tanaka Naokichi intended to create an Association for the study of diplomatic history or international politics, which was not the central issue for the Association of International Law. Ohata Tokushiro, 'Nihon Kokusaiseiji Gakkai Sanjunen no Ayumi' [The 30 Years' History of the Japan Association of International Relations], Kokusai Seiji [International Relations] (October 1986): 168-9.
10. Kawata Tadashi, Kokusai Kankei Kenkyu [The Study of International Relations] (Tokyo: Tokyo Shoseki, 1996), 381-2.
11. Yanaihara's work on colonial Taiwan is a major example of his use of a Marxist approach. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Teikokushugika no Taiwan' [Taiwan under Imperialism] (1928), in Yanaihara Tadao Zenshu [The Complete Work of Yanaihara Tadao] (YTZ afterwards), eds. Nambara Shigeru et al, vol. 2, (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1961-1963), 177-480. Since this work is still considered to be the most reliable work on colonial Taiwan, it was republished in 2001. This book was translated into Chinese in 1930 and into Russian in 1934. After the Asia-Pacific War, two translations of this book were published in Taiwan in 1952 and 1956. Wakabayashi Masahiro (ed.), Yanaihara Tadao: 'Teikokushugika no Taiwan' Seidoku [Intensive Reading of Yanaihara Tadao's Taiwan under Imperialism ] (Tokyo: Iwanami, 2001), 339.
12. With a strong faith in Christianity, Yanaihara expressed his hope for the establishment of an ideal society of humankind. For instance, see Yanaihara Tadao,'Shokumin Oyobi Shokumin Seisaku' [Population Migration and Colonial Policy], in YTZ, vol. 1, 483.
13. Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (London and New York: Allen Lane, 2004).
14. Harold James, The Roman Predicament: How the Rules of International Order Create the Politics of Empire (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2006).
15. Quoted from Stein's lecture for Ito Hirobumi. Royama Masamichi, Nihon ni Okeru Kindai Seijigaku no Hattatsu [The Development of Modem Political Study in Japan] (Tokyo: Shinsensha, 1968), 76.
16. Tokyo University was renamed as Tokyo Imperial University in 1886. The 'Imperial' status provided Tokyo and the other five imperial universities with some advantages. According to Hall, 'From July 1887 onward graduates of the law and literature colleges of the Imperial University were permitted to enter directly, without examination, upon duty as higher civil service probationers.' This put more difficulty in the way of students in private universities to become bureaucrats. Ivan Parker Hall, Mori Arinori (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 414.
17. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), 62-9.
18. Inoguchi and Bacon, 'The Study of International Relations in Japan', 11.
19. Ishida Takeshi, Nihon no Shakaikagaku [Social Sciences in Japan], (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1984). Andrew E. Barshay, The Social Sciences in Modern Japan: The Marxian and Modernist Traditions (Berkeley, CA and London: University of California Press, 2004), 55.
20. The term'monopoly capitalism' derives from the work of classical Marxism. For a brief summary of classical Marxist theory of imperialism, see Anthony Brewer, Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey, 2nd edn (London and New York: Routledge, 1980).
21. Under the Peace Preservation Law (1925), those who appeared to be connected to the Japanese Communist Party were arrested and pressured to change their belief and principles. See Richard H. Mitchell, Janus-Faced Justice: Political Criminals in Imperial Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992).
22. In fact, there was a strong contention among Japanese Marxists over the status of Japanese capitalism. While Rono-ha (Labour-Farmer School) argued that Japan had already become a 'capitalist' state, Koza-ha (Lecture School) followed the Soviet-dominated Comintern interpretation of Japan as a 'semi-feudal' country. The state's original target for accusation was the communists' theoretical conclusion that a semi-feudal Japan should undergo a two-stage revolution: first, a bourgeois-democratic revolution destroying the deeply rooted 'feudal remnants' in Japanese society; and second, a socialist revolution. Germaine A. Hoston, Marxism and the Crisis of Development in Prewar Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 36-54.
23. Byron K. Marshall, 'Academic Factionalism in Japan: The Case of the Todai Economics Department, 1919-1939', Modern Asian Studies, 12, no. 4 (1978): 529-51.
24. Watanabe Hiroshi, '"They are Almost the Same as the Ancient Three Dynamics": The West as Seen through Confucian Eyes in Nineteenth-Century Japan', in Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini-Dragons, ed. Tu Wei-ming (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1996), 131.
25. Morris-Suzuki, A History of Japanese Economic Thought, 78-9.
26. Gail Bernstein, 'Kawakami Hajime: A Japanese Marxist in Search of the Way', in Japan in Crisis: Essays on Taisho Democracy, eds. Bernard S. Silberman and H.D. Harootunian (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), 86-109.
27. Peter Duus and Irwin Scheiner, 'Socialism, Liberalism, and Marxism, 1901-1931', in The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 6, ed. Peter Duus (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 676-8.
28. According to Jansen, minponshugi 'also had Confucian overtones, although Yoshino did not stress or discuss these'. Marius Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000), 544.
29. Najita Tetsuo, 'Some Reflections on Idealism in the Political Thought of Yoshino Sakuzo', in Japan in Crisis, eds. Silberman and Harootunian, 31-5.
30. Yamakawa Hitoshi, 'Minshushugi no Hartmon' [The Agony of Democracy] (first published 1919), in Yamakawa Hitoshi Zenshu [The Collected Work of Yarnakawa Hitoshi], ed. Takabatake Michitoshi (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1976), 15-35.
31. Peter Duus, 'Liberal Intellectuals and Social Conflict in Taisho Japan, in Conflict in Modern Japanese History: The Neglected Tradition, ed. Tetsuo Najita and J. Victor Koschmann (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 439.
32. Royama, Nihon ni Okeru Kindai Seijigaku no Hattatsu, 95.
33. Ibid., 95-6.
34. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Watakushi no Ayundekita Michi' [The Road I Have Walked] (1958), in YTZ, vol. 26, 18-21.
35. John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', Economic History Review, 2nd series, 6, no.1 (1953): 1-25.
36. Michael A. Schneider, 'The Limits of Cultural Rule', in Colonial Modernity in Korea, ed. Gi-Wook Shin and Michael Robinson (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1999), 119.
37. Yanaihara, 'Shokumin Oyobi Shokurnin Seisaku', 470.
38. Following Locke's dictum that 'Trade ... is necessary to the producing of Riches, and Money necessary to the carrying on of Trade', Yanaihara regarded commercial migration as the necessary process for the survival and evolution of human society. See, Nakano Ryoko, 'Uncovering Shokumin: Yanaihara Tadao's Concept of Global Civil Society', Social Science Japan Journal, 9, no. 2 (October 2006): 194.
39. Yanaihara, 'Shokumin Oyobi Shokumin Seisaku', 289-90. I later examine Yanaihara's criticism of the British Empire, including its commonwealth system.
40. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Shokuminchi Kokumin Undo to Eiteikoku no Shorai' [Nationalist Movement in Colonies and the Future of the British Empire], in YTZ, vol. 4, 426.
41. Yanaihara's citation of Turgot appears in several of his works. For example, Yanaihara, 'Shokumin Oyobi Shokumin Seisaku', 293-4. Yanaihara, 'Shokuminchi Kokumin Undo to Eiteikoku. no Shorai', 437. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Sekai Keizai Hatten Katei to Shiteno Shokuminshi' [The History of Migrations as the Process of Developing a World Economy], in YTZ, vol. 4, 163.
42. Yanaihara,'Shokumin Oyobi Shokumin Seisaku', 289-90.
43. Sakai Tetsuya, 'Nihon Gaikoshi no Furusa to Atarashisa' [The 'Tradition' and the 'Innovation' in Japanese Diplomatic History], Kokusai Kankeiron Kenkyu [Review of International Studies (Tokyo University)] 13 (March 1999), 13.
44. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Shokumin Seisaku Yori Mitaru Inin Tochi Seido' [The Mandate System in Relation to Colonial Policy] (1937), in YTZ, vol. 4, 188.
45. From 1937 to 1941, Konoe became Prime Minister three times.
46. Royama Masamichi, Toa to Sekai [East Asia and the World] (Tokyo: Kaizosha, 1941), 16.
47. Sakai Tetsuya, 'Sengo Gaikoron no Keisei' [The Development of Post-war Diplomatic Theory], in Senso, Fukko, Hatten [War, Renewal, and Development], eds. Kitaoka Shin'ichi and Mikuriya Takashi (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 2000), 126-7.
48. Masamichi Royama, Foreign Policy of Japan, 1914-1939 (Tokyo: Japanese Council Institute of Pacific Relations, 1941).
49. Miles Fletcher, 'Intellectuals and Fascism in Early Showa Japan', Journal of Asian Studies, 39, no. 1 (November 1979): 50-2.
50. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Shihon Chikuseki to Shokuminchi' [The Accumulation of Capital and Colonies] (1930), in YTZ, vol. 4, 66.
51. Yanaihara,'Teikokushugika no Taiwan', 198.
52. When Yanaihara criticised the Japanese predominant perception of Manchuria as Japan's 'special interests' in 1934, he claimed that from 1910 the Japanese economy had built up a substantial number of industrial cartels that were in critical need of overseas markets. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Manshu Mondai' [The Manchurian Question] (1934), in YTZ, vol. 2, 491.
53. From 1937 to 1945, Yanaihara continued to run a Bible studies class at home and at a public hall, and to print and circulate his Christian leaflets to more than one thousand readers.
54. Unlike British liberal imperialists such as Alfred Zimmern, Yanaihara neither believed that the British Empire or British Commonwealth system could offer something better than other political systems, nor emphasised the legacy of the British Empire.
55. Yanaihara Tadao, 'Teikokushugika no Indo' [India under Imperialism] (1936), in YTZ, vol. 3, 459-650.
56. 'Internationalization within'borrows from Hatsuse Ryuhei. Hatsuse Ryuhei (ed.), Uchinaru Kokusaika [Internationalization Within] (Tokyo: Sanrei Shobo, 1985).
57. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, NLk: Harvard University Press, 2000).
58. Ibid., 364.
59. See, for example, Barkawi and Laffey, who provide a reasonable account of the significance and limits of Empire. Tarak Barkawi and Mark Laffey, 'Retrieving the Imperial: Empire and International Relations', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 31, no. 1 (2002): 109-27. Also see Marin Shaw, 'Post-Imperial and Quasi-Imperial: State and Empire in the Global Era', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 31, no. 1 (2002): 327-36.
60. Barkawi and Laffey, Retrieving the Imperial., 113.
61. Hardt and Negri, Empire, xii-xiii.
62. Michael Cox, 'The Empire's Back in Town: Or America's Imperial Temptation - Again', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 32, no. 1 (2003): 1-27.
63. Numerous works have been devoted to the liberal and cultural prominence of the United States. See, for example, John G. Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001). Joseph S. Nye, JR., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
64. A vast literature has been produced on whether the United States is and should be empire. See Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004). Michael Mann, Incoherent Empire (London and New York: Verso, 2003). In opposition to adopting the idea of empire for the United States, see G. John Ikenberry, 'Illlusions of Empire: Defining the New American Order', Foreign Affairs (March/April 2004): 44-60.
65. Andrew J. Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 2002), 3.
66. Francis Fukuyama, After the Neocons: America at the Crossroads (London: Profile Books, 2006).