Victimization of African indigenous peoples: Appraisal of violations of collective rights under victimological and international law lenses

International Journal on Minority and Group Rights

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 1-23

  Ndahinda, Felix Mukwiza ^a  

^a TILBURG UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN RIGHTS; INDIGENOUS POPULATION; INTERNATIONAL LAW;

EID: 34249706441     PISSN: 13854879     EISSN: 15718115     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/138548707X181539     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. R. Elias, 'Paradigms and Paradoxes of Victimology', pp. 16-18, www.aic.gov.au/publications/proceedings/27/elias.pdf, visited on 15 June 2006.
2. Ibid., pp. 11-12.
3. The analysis subsumes indigenous peoples' rights into human rights, while being aware of existing theoretical formulations differentiating group rights, including indigenous peoples' rights with mainstream human rights law deemed to protect mainly individual rights and freedoms.
4. H. Rombouts and S. Vandeginste, 'Reparation for victims of gross and systematic violations: The notion of victim' (Third World Legal Studies, 2003) pp. 89-92.
5. United Nations Commission on Human Rights, 'The Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: Final Report of the Special Rapporteur, Mr. M. Bassiouni, submitted in accordance with Commission Resolution 1999/33', UN Doc. E/CN.4/2000/62, 18 January 2000
6. ECOSOC, The right to a remedy and reparation for victims of violations of international human rights and humanitarian law, reports of the first, second and third consultative meeting, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/63 of 27 December 2002, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2004/57 of 10 November 2003 and UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/59 of 21 December 2004 respectively reports espouse this idea of victims rights as being human rights.
7. See also Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, Human Rights and Victims of Violence, Report, June 2003, pp. 46-61, http://cain.ulst. ac.uk/issues/victims/docs/nihrc03victims.pdf, visited on 28 July 2006.
8. C. Oguamanam, 'Indigenous Peoples and International Law: The Making of a Regime', 30 Queen's L. J., (2004) p. 355 et seq.
9. The controversies surrounding the de.nition and indigenous peoples entitlements are captured among others in S. J. Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law (2nd Ed., Oxford University Press, 2004)
10. R. Niezen, The Origin of Indigenism: Human Rights and the Politics of Identity (University of California Press, 2003)
11. P. Alston (ed.), Peoples' Rights (Oxford University Press, 2001)
12. C. Brölmann, R. Lefeber and M. Zieck, Peoples and Minorities in International Law (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993)
13. M. A. Martínez, 'Study on Treaties, Agreements and other Constructive Arrangements between States and Indigenous Populations', Final Report by the Special Rapporteur, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/20, 22 June 1999.
14. IWGIA, "The indigenous World Reports 1999-2000, 2000-2001, 2001-2002, 2002-2003, 2004 and 2005, at www.iwgia.org/sw162.asp, last visited on 27 June 2006.
15. B. Kingsbury, '"Indigenous Peoples" in International Law: A constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy', 92 American Journal of International Law (1998) p. 417.
16. Niezen, supra note 7, pp. 53 et seq.
17. B. Kingsbury, '"Indigenous Peoples" in International Law: A constructivist Approach to the Asian Controversy', 92 American Journal of International Law (1998) p. 417)
18. J. Igoe, 'Becoming Indigenous Peoples: Difference, Inequality, and the Globalization of East African Identity Politics', http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/adi127v1, visited on 28 June 2006.
19. See Article 1 of the ILO Convention (169) concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, International Labour Conference, 76th Session, 27 June 1989; the World Bank has been active with indigenous peoples since the 1980s through an adoption of flexible approaches such as reflected in World Bank, OD 4.20: Indigenous Peoples, 17 September 1991, replaced by OP 4.10: Indigenous Peoples, January 2005, http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/EXTINDPEOPLE/ 0,menuPK:407808~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:407802,00.html, visited on 2 August 2006.
20. See among many others J. R. Martinez Cobo, Study of the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations, Final Report, Final Report (last part), E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.4, March 1987, para. 379.
21. E.-I. A. Daes, Working Paper by the Chairperson-Rapporteur on the Concept of 'Indigenous People', UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, 10 June 1996, para. 69
22. see also D. L. Hodgson, 'Introduction: Comparative Perspectives on the Indigenous Rights Movement in Africa and the Americas', 104:4 American Anthropologist (2002) p. 1042.
23. P. Thornberry, Indigenous Peoples and Human Rights (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2002) pp. 408-410.
24. J. Burger, Report from the Frontier: The State of the World's Indigenous Peoples, Cultural Survival Report No 28 (Zed Books Ltd., 1987) pp. 17-33.
25. Igoe, supra note 10, p. 4.
26. Ibid.
27. Defenders of indigenousness in the African context include: E.-I. A. Daes, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, Burger, supra note 15
28. Anaya, supra note 7, pp. 15-48
29. Niezen, supra note 7
30. ECOSOC, Report of the Special Rapporteur R. Stavenhagen of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Submitted pursuant to Commission's Resolution 2001/57, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2002/97, 4 February 2002, para. 33.
31. Contra arguments are heralded by among others: M. A. Martínez, 'Study on Treaties, Agreements and other Constructive Arrangements between States and Indigenous Populations', Final Report by the Special Rapporteur, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/20, 22 June 1999,
32. The Convention is ratified by 17 countries none of them African as of July 2006.
33. With few exception such as South Africa (as illustrated through: Richtersveld Community & Others v. Alexcor Limited & Another 2003 (6) BCLR 583 (SCA) and Alexcor Limited & Another v. The Richtersveld Community & Others 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC), many other African countries are still reluctant to explicitly provide for legal recognition of, and standing to, groups claiming indigenous identity.
34. See generally African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights and International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs (ACHPR & IWGIA), Report of the African Commission's Working Group of Experts on Indigenous Populations/Communities (hereinafter ACHPR Report), p. 47 et seq., www.iwgia.org/graphics/Synkron-Library/Documents/publications/ Downloadpublications/Books/AfricanCommissionbookEnglish.pdf, visited on 02 August 2006.
35. Most illustrative is the book by O. Vaughan (ed.), Tradition and Politics: Indigenous Political Structures in Africa (Africa World Press, Trenton/Asmara, 2005), whereby 'indigenous' applies to different forms of local governance, contrasted with 'Western' inherited state power structure.
36. ILO Convention 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, International Labour conference, 76th Session, 27 June 1989 remains the only international binding treaty specifically dedicated to rights of indigenous peoples. It has been ratified by only 17 states www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp2.htm as of June 2006. For an overview of international instruments protecting indigenous peoples' rights see W. van Genugten and C. Perez-Bustillo, 'The Emerging International Architecture of Indigenous Rights, The Interaction between the Global, Regional and National Dimensions', 11 International Journal on Minority and Group Rights (2004) pp. 4-10.
37. The Former terminology is borrowed from Igoe, supra note 10, p. 3 et seq.
38. while the latter is drawn from Hodgson, supra note 13, p. 1040.
39. Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 244-264
40. see also ACHPR Report, supra note 20.
41. C. L. Holder and J. J. Corntassel, 'Indigenous Peoples and Multicultural Citizenship: Bridging Collective and Individual Rights', 24 Human Rights Quarterly (2002) pp. 126-151.
42. Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 105-114.
43. Ibid.
44. see also Niezen, supra note 7, p. 1 et seq.
45. On this subject, read among others: W. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular: Nationalism, Multiculturalism, and Citizenship (Oxford university Press, 2001)
46. J. Tully, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity (Cambridge University Press, 1995)
47. W. Kymlicka and W. Norman, Citizenship in Diverse Societies (Oxford University Press, 2000).
48. Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of crime and Abuse of Power (hereinafter UN Victims' Rights Declaration), G. A. Res. 40/34L., 96th Plenary Meeting, 29 November 1985, de.ning victims of crimes as persons who: "individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power"(para. 1)
49. while victims of abuse of power are construed as: "persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that do not yet constitute violations of national criminal laws but of internationally recognized norms relating to human rights" (para. 18). Rule 85 of the International Criminal Court Rules of Procedure and Evidence (U.N. Doc. PCNICC/2000/1/Add.1) elaborating on Article 68 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court (adopted at Rome on 17 July 1998, PCNICC/1999/INF/3), disposes that: "(a) 'Victims' means natural persons who have suffered harm as a result of the commission of any crime within the jurisdiction of the Court; (b) Victims may include organizations or institutions that have sustained direct harm to any of their property which is dedicated to religion, education, art or science or charitable purposes, and to their historic monuments, hospitals and other places and objects for humanitarian purposes." "[O]rganizations or institutions" can be construed to include indigenous peoples' collectivities.
50. Rombouts and Vandeginste, supra note 4, p. 90.
51. E. A. Fattah, 'Victimology: Past, Present and Future', 33:1 Criminology (2000) pp. 17-46
52. Elias, supra note 1, p. 9 et seq., www.aic.gov.au/publications/ proceedings/27/elias.pdf, visited on 5 July 2006.
53. L. Lamborn, 'The United Nations Declaration on Victims: Incorporating Abuse of Power', 19 Rutgers L. J., Vol. (1987-1988) pp. 59-95
54. Rombouts and Vandeginste, supra note 4, pp. 91-92.
55. Elias, supra note 1, p. 9 et seq.
56. Rombouts and Vandeginste, supra note 4, pp. 89-92.
57. Anaya, supra note 7, pp. 49-53.
58. Paragraph 19 of the UN victims' rights declaration provides for similar remedies for victims of abuse of power as those in preceding paragraphs regarding victims of crime.
59. Rombouts and Vandeginste, supra note 4, pp. 99 et seq.
60. Para. 19 of the UN Victims' Rights Declaration.
61. Paras. 1 and 18 of the UN Victims' Rights Declaration.
62. United Nations Of.ce for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP), 'Guide for Policy Makers on the Implementation of the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power' (Centre for International Crime Prevention, 1999) pp. 33-35, www.uncjin.org/Standards/policy.pdf, accessed on 25 July 2006.
63. Rombouts and Vandeginste, supra note 4, p. 94. While the Bassiouni principles adopt an individual-centric definition of the victim which reads: "[a] person is 'a victim' where, as a result of acts or omissions that constitute a violation of international human rights or humanitarian law norms, that person, individually or collectively, suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss, or impairment of that person's fundamental legal rights. A 'victim' may also be a dependant or a member of the immediate family or household of the direct victim as well as a person who, in intervening to assist a victim or prevent the occurrence of further violations, has suffered physical, mental, or economic harm." They paradoxically urge states to provide that "[i]n addition to individual access to justice, adequate provisions should also be made to allow groups of victims to present collective claims for reparation and to receive reparation collectively."
64. Lamborn, supra note 32, pp. 67-75.
65. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, UN. DOC. A/CONF.157/23, 12 July 1993, para. 5
66. Report of the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, UN. Doc A/CONF.189/12, Durban 31 August-8 September 2001, para. 25 of the preamble.
67. On the recent development of human rights and status of collective rights, contrast the strong case for indigenous peoples' collective rights in Anaya, supra note 7, p. 53 et seq.
68. with early opposition to "collective human rights" in J. Donnelly, 'Third Generation Rights', in C. Brölmann, R. Lefeber and M. Zieck, Peoples and Minorities in International Law (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993), p. 134.
69. The listing of sources of international norms to be taken into consideration (which appears not to be limitative) does not mention any specific instrument for protection of indigenous groups (see ODCCP, Guide for Policy Makers, supra note 39, pp. 33-34).
70. To the exception of some few encouraging recent and ongoing developments among others in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand (J. Castellino, 'The Right "Right" to Land, International Law & Indigenous Peoples', in J. Castellino and N. Walsh, International Law and Indigenous Peoples (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005) p. 89 et seq.;
71. Anaya, supra note 7, pp. 141-148). In the African context, South Africa offers the best example of a recent shift towards judicial recognition of indigenous peoples' right to communal land tenure along the lines mentioned above and as illustrated by Alexcor Limited & Another v. The Richtersveld Community & Others 2003 (12) BCLR 1301 (CC).
72. For more details see K. Lehmann, 'Aboriginal Title, Indigenous Rights and the Right to Cultural', 20 SAJHR (2004) pp. 86-118
73. H. Mostert and P. Fitzpatrick, 'Law Against Law: Indigenous Rights and the Richtersveld Cases', at www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/lgd/ 2004_2/mostert.tzpatrick/, last visited on 3 November 2006.
74. Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 214-224.
75. Ibid., p. 214.
76. See ACHPR Report, supra note 20, pp. 21-22.
77. ECOSOC, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/63; UN Doc. E/CN.4/2004/57; UN Doc. E/CN.4/ 2005/59. These international standard-setting documents depart from the Bassiouni and van Boven principles by covering not only "Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" but more generally "victims of violations of international Human Rights and Humanitarian Law" in general.
78. Ibid.
79. Study Concerning the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms; Final Report Submitted by Mr. Theo van Boven, Special Rapporteur, Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 45th Sess., Agenda Item 4, at 16, U.N. Doc. E/ CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8 (1993), para. 14;
80. see also paras. 17 and 30.
81. ODCCP, Guide for Policy Makers, supra note 39, p. 34, n. 60.
82. Besides the above mentioned ILO Convention 169, the United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples, UN. Doc. A/HRC/1/L.3, 23 June 2006 under negotiation since the proclamation of the first indigenous peoples decade was only adopted by the Human Rights Council and is still to be adopted by the UN General Assembly.
83. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular, supra note 28, pp. 203-220.
84. Niezen, supra note 7, p. 119.
85. Ibid.
86. Thornberry, supra note 14.
87. See Tully, supra note 28
88. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular, supra note 28
89. Kymlicka and Norman, Citizenship in Diverse Societies, supra note 28.
90. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular, supra note 28, p. 70.
91. In this respect, the case law of the Human Rights Committee is instructing in landmark cases such as Lovelace v. Canada, Communication No. 24/1977, Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GOAR, 36th Sess., Supp. No 40, at 166, UN. Doc., A/36/40, Annex 18 (1977), 30 July 1981
92. Kitok v. Sweden, Communication No. 197/1985, Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GOAR, 43rd Sess., Supp. No 40, at 207, UN. Doc., A/43/ 40, Annex 7 (G) (1988), 27 July 1988
93. L÷ansman et al. v. Finland, Communication No 511/1992, Human Rights Committee, UN. Doc. CCPR/C/52/D/511/1992, 26 October 1994
94. see also M. Scheinin, 'Indigenous Peoples' Rights Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights', in Castellino and Walsh, supra note 44, pp. 3-15.
95. Anaya, supra note 7, p. 134 et seq.
96. Article 27 of the ICCPR
97. see also the case law of the Human Rights Committee as commented in Scheinin, supra note 58, pp. 3-15.
98. Chief Bernard Ominayak of the Lubicon Lake Band v. Canada, communication No. 167/1984, Report of the Human Rights Committee, U.N. GOAR, 45th Sess., Supp. No 40, Vol. 2, at 1, UN. Doc., A/45/40, Annex 9 (A) (1990), 26 March 1990, para. 32.1 whereby the Human Rights Committee held that the right to self-determination under Article 1 of the ICC cannot be claimed by groups through the individual complaint procedure instituted in Optional Protocol 1 to the ICCPR.
99. See also Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 23 adopted under Article 40, para. 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, UN. Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5 (1994), para. 3.1 whereby the Committee held that: "Self-determination is not a right cognizable under the Optional Protocol."
100. Ibid.
101. Anaya, supra note 7, p. 59.
102. Scheinin, supra note 58, pp. 3-15.
103. Kymlicka, Politics in the Vernacular, supra note 28, p. 123.
104. Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 18-20
105. K. S. Coates, A Global History of Indigenous Peoples Struggle and Survival (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2004).
106. IWGIA, The Indigenous World Reports, 2002-2003 and 2005, 2006 www.iwgia.org/sw162.asp, visited on 18 July 2006 provides continuously updated accounts of forms of violations of indigenous groups' rights in various countries, most of which amount to victimization; see also for early work on the topic Burger, supra note 15.
107. See also ECOSOC, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2002/97, ECOSOC, Human Rights and Indigenous Issues: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Rodolfo Stavenhagen, Submitted in Accordance with Commission Resolution 2001/65, UN Doc. E/CN4/2003/90, 21 January 2003 (with add.1-3).
108. G. C. Marks, 'Indigenous Peoples in International Law: The Significance of Francisco de Vitoria and Bartlomé de Las Casas', in S. J. Anaya (ed.), International Law and Indigenous Peoples (Ashgate Publishing Limited and Darmouth Publishing Company, 2003) p. 13
109. ACHPR Report, supra note 20, p. 27.
110. E. A. Fattah, 'Victimology Today: Recent Theoretical and Applied Developments', 112th International Training Course, Visiting Experts' Papers, Resource Material Series No 56, pp. 65-66 at www.unafeifior.jp/english/pdf/PDF_rms/no56/56-06.pdf, visited on 35 July 2006
111. see also R. F. Meier and T. D. Miethe, 'Understanding Theories of Criminal Victimization', 17 Crime & Justice (1993) pp. 461-464.
112. See Rule 85 of the ICC statute (supra, note 20) extending the de.nition of victims to include, not only persons but also "organizations or institutions that have sustained direct harm to any of their property which is dedicated to religion, education, art or science or charitable purposes, and to their historic monuments, hospitals and other places and objects for humanitarian purposes", (Rule 85 (b)).
113. Niezen, supra note 7, pp. 1-28.
114. The status and limits of the protection of indigenous peoples mainly through the developing international norms are better pictured among others by Anaya, supra note 7
115. and Thornberry, supra note 14.
116. E. A. Fattah, 'Victimology: Past, Present and Future', pp. 27-32
117. see also Meier and Miethe, supra note 69, p. 464 et seq.
118. The recent publication: E. Vetere and D. Pedro (eds.), Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power: Festschrift in Honour of Irene Melup, Bangkok, 11th UN Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, April 2005, displays the predominance of the individual in victimization studies.
119. H. Kury (ed.), International Comparison of Crime and Victimization: The ICVS (De sitter Publications, 2001).
120. See in this respect L. Capobianco and M. Shaw, 'Crime Prevention and Indigenous Communities: Current International Strategies and Programmes', Report, International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, July 2003, at www.crime-prevention-intl.org/publications/ pub_1_1.pdf, visited on 19 July 2006.
121. On the differentiation of individual and collective rights in indigenous claims see A. Buchanan, 'The Role of Collective Rights in the Theory of Indigenous Peoples' Rights', 3 Transnat'l L. & Contemp. Probs (1993) p. 93 et seq.
122. Capobianco and Shaw, supra note 76.
123. J. van Dijk and M. Shaw, 'The International Crime (Victim) Survey: Impact and Future Policy Implications', in H. Kury (ed.), International Comparison of Crime and Victimization Vol. 2 (De sitter Publications, 2001) p. 11. The multidimensional nature of indigenous claims and the need for adapted responses is reflected in international documents such as the Vienna Declaration, UN. Doc. A/CONF.157/23, paras. 20, 28-32; Report of the World Conference against Racism, UN. Doc. A/CONF.189/12, paras. 39-46.
124. C. Oguamanam, supra note 6, pp. 361-362.
125. On an extensive discussion of Indigenous Peoples' claimed rights see B. Kingsbury, 'Reconciling Five Competing Conceptual Structures of Indigenous Peoples' Claims in International and Comparative Law', in P. Alston (ed.), Peoples' Rights (Oxford University Press, 2001) pp. 69-110.
126. P. Alston (ed.), Peoples' Rights (Oxford University Press, 2001) pp. 7-67, 87-100
127. Anaya, supra note 7, pp. 97-128.
128. R. K. Hitchcock, 'International Human Rights Law, the Environment, and Indigenous Peoples', 5 Colo. J. Int'l Envitl. L. & Pol'y (1994) pp. 1-22, 12-13.
129. United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (ODCCP), 'Handbook on Justice for Victims: On the Use and Application of the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power' (Centre for International Crime Prevention, 1999) p. 46, www.uncjin.org/Standards/9857854.pdf, visited on 31 July 2006
130. D. Boyle, 'The Rights of Victims; Participation, Representation, Protection, Reparation', 4 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2006) pp. 307-313
131. T. van Boven, 'Human Rights and Rights of Peoples', 6 EJIL (1995) p. 15.
132. Notes 58-62.
133. H. Keteley, 'Exclusion by De.nition: Access to International Tribunals for the Enforcement of the Collective Rights of Indigenous Peoples', 8 International Journal of Minority and Group Rights (2001) pp. 331-368. One of the exceptions is the ACHPR which provides for actio popularis.
134. Lehmann, supra note 43, pp. 87-91. The author discusses throughout the article the Richtersveld cases before the South African Land Claims Court, the Supreme Court of Appeal and the Constitutional Court resulting, in the later case, in an unequivocal recognition of aboriginal title and rights without elucidating the contentious issue as to who is entitled to those rights in South Africa, beyond the specific case of the claimants.
135. S. Saugestad, 'Contested Images: "First Peoples" or "Marginalized Minorities" in Africa?', in A. Barnard and J. Kenrick (eds.), Africa's Indigenous Peoples: First Peoples or Marginalized Minorities (Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, 2001) pp. 299-322
136. ECOSOC, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2002/97, paras. 33 and 95-96; ACHPR Report, supra note 20, pp. 45-50.
137. As illustrated in the following publication: O. Vaughan (ed.), Tradition and Politics: Indigenous Political Structures in Africa (Africa World Press, Trenton/Asmara, 2005)
138. J. Klabbers and R. Lefeber, 'Africa: Lost Between Self-Determination and Uti Possidetis', in C. Brölmann et al. (eds.), Peoples and Minorities, supra note 43, pp. 37-76.
139. P. Drahos, 'Towards an International Framework for the Protection of Traditional Group Knowledge and Practice', UNCTAD-Commonwealth Secretariat Workshop on Elements of National Sui Generis Systems for the Preservation, Protection and Promotion of Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices and Options for an International Framework, Geneva, 4-6 February 2004, at http://cgkd.anu.edu.au/menus/PDFs/ Drahos_tkframework.pdf, visited on 03 August 2006.
140. Ibid.
141. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Socio-Economic Dominance of Ethnic and Racial Groups-The African Experience, Human Development Report Of.ce, Occasional Paper by Sam Moyo, UNDP. 2004/8, p. 4.
142. ACHPR Report, supra note 20, pp. 45-50
143. Barnard and Kenrick (eds.), supra note 87.
144. See supra notes 12, 13 and 14 on different international institutions' approaches to indigenousness.
145. The most commonly cited examples of current groups identifying with indigenous movement comprise hunter-gatherer groups such as: 1) the Pygmies of the African Great Lakes (East and Central Africa) divided in different groups including Batwa (Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Uganda), Bambuti (Democratic Republic of Congo), Hadzabe and Ogiek (respectively in Tanzania and Kenya), Baka (Central Afric an Republic and Gabon), Yaka and Babendjelle (North-West Congo Basin), as well as Baka and Bagyeli (Cameroon); 2) the san of Southern Africa/commonly referred to as Bushmen (mainly in Botswana, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Zambia). Examples of pastoralists include but are not limited to: 1) in Eastern, Southern and horn of Africa: The Pokot of Kenya and Uganda, the Barabaig of Tanzania, the Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania, the Samburu, Turkana, Rendille, Orma and Borana of Kenya and Ethiopia, the Himba, the Karamojong of Uganda, the numerous isolated pastoralist communities in Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia (Somalis, Afars, Kereyu/Oromo, Nuer...); 2) in Western, Central and Northern Africa: The Mbororo (part of the Fulanis/Peuls) in, among others, Niger, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, Mali, Benin, Cameroon, Chad and Central African Republic, the Ogoni in Nigeria and the Imazighen or Amazigh (also known as Berbers and including the Tuareg) mainly found in Morocco, Algeria, Mali, Niger, with smaller pockets in Mauritania, Burkina Faso, Libya, Tunisia and Egypt. For further details on the various African groups claiming indigenous status see ACHPR Report, supra note 20, pp. 14-19; IWGIA, The indigenous World Reports 1999-2000, 2000-2001, 2001-2002, 2002-2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, at www.iwgia.org/sw162.asp, last visited on 2 August 2006.
146. This is the case of M. A. Martínez, 'Study on Treaties, Agreements and other Constructive Arrangements between States and Indigenous Populations', Final Report by the Special Rapporteur, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/20, 22 June 1999, para. 90 which advocated other forms of protection such as minority rights.
147. ACHPR Report, supra note 20, pp. 47-50. Most countries prefer using in their legislations on special protection neutral formulations like marginalized groups or 'disadvantaged groups perceived as including, but are not limited to, indigenous peoples.
148. On this see Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 12-32
149. Burger, supra note 15, pp. 5-62.
150. ACHPR Report, supra note 20, p. 20.
151. Ibid., pp. 23-24
152. see also N. Olmsted, Indigenous Rights in Botswana: Development, Democracy and Dispossession, 3 Wash. U. Global Stud. L. Rev. (2004) pp. 799-866.
153. Articles 19-24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (African Charter), adopted on 27 June 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), entered into force on 21 October 1986
154. P. Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 255-264.
155. African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (ACHPR), The Social and Economic Rights Action Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria, Comm. No. 155/96 (2001) para. 56.
156. Ibid., para. 58.
157. See also R. Murray and S. Wheatley, Groups and the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 25 Human Rights Quarterly (2003) pp. 213-236.
158. E.-I. A. Daes, E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.4/1996/2, supra note 13.
159. As it was clearly expressed in M. A. Martínez, Study on Treaties, Agreements and other Constructive Arrangements between States and Indigenous Populations, Final Report by the Special Rapporteur, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/20, 22 June 1999, para. 89; where the author, a UN appointed Special Rapporteur, rejects the idea of indigenousness as an applicable legal concept in Africa, arguing for alternative categories.
160. P. Thornberry, Indigenous Peoples in International Law: Definitions, Claim, Process, in A. Bernard and J. Kenrick (eds.), Africas Indigenous Peoples: First Peoples or Marginalized Minorities?, (University of Edinburgh, Centre of African Studies, 2001) pp. 91-94.
161. For some relevant literature thereon, see O. Vaughan (ed.), Tradition and Politics: Indigenous Political Structures in Africa (Africa World Press, Trenton/Asmara, 2005)
162. O. O. C. Okafor, After Martyrdom: International Law, Sub-State Groups, and the Construction of Legitimate Statehood in Africa, 41 Harv. Intl L. J. (2000) pp. 503-528.
163. On this see Thornberry, supra note 14, pp. 244-247.
164. Burger, supra note 15, pp. 176
165. R. Eversole, Overview-Patterns of Indigenous Disadvantage Worldwide, in R. Eversole et al. (eds.), Indigenous Peoples & Poverty: An International Perspective, (International Studies in Poverty Research, London/New York, Zed Books, 2005) pp. 29-37.
166. For the innovative aspects of the African Charter see J. Swanson, The Emergence of New Rights in the African Charter, 12 N.Y.L. Sch. J. Intl & Comp. L. (1991) pp. 307-333.
167. For an analysis of relatedness of rights in the African human rights system and the summing up of critics thereon, see J. C. Nwobike, The African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights and the Demystification of Second and Third Generation Rights under the African Charter: Social and Economic Rights Action Center (SERAC) and the Center for Economic and Social Rights (CESR) v. Nigeria, 1 Afr. J. Legal Stud. (2005) pp. 129-146.
168. Past limits on the implementation of the provisions of the African Charter are summed up by R. Murray, The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights 1987-2000: An Overview of Its Progress and Problems, 1 Afr. Hum. Rts. L.J, (2001) pp. 1-17.
169. For other details on the African Charter and groups rights see C. Morel, Defending Human Rights in Africa: The case of Minority and Indigenous Rights, 1:1 Essex Human Rights Review (2004) pp. 54-65.
170. On the evolving concept of human security see S. N MacFarlane and Y. F. Khong, Human Security and the UN, United Nations Intellectual History Project Series (Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2006),
171. Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now, Final Report (New York, 2003), at , last visited on 7 November 2006, which specifically mentions indigenous peoples as in need of special protection (pp. 26 and 134).
172. On an overview of procedural limitations for indigenous groups, see H. Keteley, supra note 85.
173. On positive dynamics, see among others S. J. Anaya, supra note 7
174. and R. Niezen, supra note 7.
175. ACHPR, The Social and Economic Rights Action Center for Economic and Social Rights v. Nigeria supra note 101, para. 49.
176. In the same decision the Commission held that: "collective rights, environmental rights, and economic and social rights are essential elements of human rights in Africa. The African Commission will apply any of the diverse rights contained in the African Charter. It welcomes this opportunity to make clear that there is no right in the African Charter that cannot be made effective." As to the problématique of the application of "peoples rights" in the Charter to specific groups forming part of national population, the African Commission, while remaining cautious on factual grounds, gave an indication as to the possibility of responding positively to the question in Malawi African Association and Othrs v. Mauritania, African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights, Comm. Nos. 54/91, 61/91, 98/93, 164/97 á 196/97 and 210/98 (2000), paras. 140-142
177. and Legal Resources Foundation v. Zambia, African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights, Comm. No. 211/98 (2001), para. 73.