Seeing clearly: Making decisions under conditions of scientific controversy and incomplete and uncertain scientific information

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 46, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 571-599

  Clarke, Ann ^a  

^a Federal Bar Association   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DECISION MAKING; INFORMATION; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS;

EID: 34249087163     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. Beth C. Bryant, "Forensic Fisheries Science": Literature Review and Research Suggestions, 66 MARINE FISHERIES REV. 1, 7 (2004);
2. RICHARD J. LAZARUS, THE MAKING OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 8, 215 (2004).
3. See also ALDO LEOPOLD, A SAND COUNTY ALMANAC AND SKETCHES HERE AND THERE 201, 214-20 (The Land Ethic) (1949). Among other accomplishments, Leopold founded the field of wildlife ecology and sought to infuse federal agency land management decision-making processes with scientific information about wildlife.
4. See Who Was Aldo Leopold..., Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, http://leopold.wilderness.net/aboutus/aldo.htm (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
5. See generally Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920, HARV. HIST. MONOGRAPHS (Univ. Pittsburgh Press, 1999) (1959).
6. Bryant, supra note 1, at 7;
7. LAZARUS, supra note 1;
8. LEOPOLD, supra note 1.
9. Administrative Procedures Act of 1946, 5 U.S.C. §§ 551-59 (Administrative procedures), §§ 701-06 (Judicial review), § 1305 (Administrative law judges), § 3344 (Details, administrative law judges), § 5372 (Administrative law judges), § 7521 (Actions against administrative law judges).
10. For additional information on the APA, see ADMINISTRATIVE CONFERENCE OF THE UNITED STATES, A GUIDE TO FEDERAL AGENCY RULEMAKING (2d ed. 1991).
11. In 1995, Congress authorized funding to terminate the Administrative Conference of the United States (ACUS), Pub. L. No. 104-52, title IV, 109 Stat. 480, 480 (Nov. 19, 1995).
12. In the Federal Regulatory Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-401, 118 Stat. 2255 (2004), Congress authorized funding for the Administrative Conference of the United States (ACUS) for two years and amended section 591 of Title 5, U.S.C. to state that the purpose of ACUS is to reduce litigation and improve the use of science in rulemaking.
13. See also LAZARUS, supra note 1, at 58, 60, 81;
14. SUSAN JASANOFF, SCIENCE AT THE BAR: LAW, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AMERICA 69 (1995).
15. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4347; Pub. L. No. 91-190, 83 Stat. 852 (1970), as amended by Pub. L. No. 94-52, 89 Stat. 258 (1975), Pub. L. No. 94-83, 89 Stat. 424 (1975), and Pub. L. No. 97-258, § 4(b), 96 Stat. 1067 (1982).
16. See generally PAMELA BALDWIN, OVERVIEW OF NEPA REQUIREMENTS (2000), http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/ risk/rsk-49.cfm (last visited Dec. 14, 2006) (Congressional Research Service Report RS20621, Washington, D.C.).
17. Lynton K. Caldwell, A Constitutional Law for the Environment: 20 Years with NEPA Indicates the Need, 31 ENVIRONMENT 6, 6-11, 25-28 (1989).
18. National Environmental Policy Act § 102(2)(A) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 4332).
19. Id. § 102(2)(A).
20. Id. § 102(2)(E).
21. Id. § 102(2)(C).
22. Id. § 102(2)(A).
23. Id. § 102(2)(H).
24. Id. § 102(2)(D).
25. Id. § 102(2)(C).
26. Id. § 101(b).
27. See also Envtl Defense Fund v. Corps of Eng'rs, 325 F. Supp. 728, 759 (E.D. Ark. 1971), aff'd, 470 F.2d 289, 297 (8th Cir. 1972) (describing NEPA as, at minimum, an environmental full disclosure law);
28. Claudia Goetz Phillips, An Evaluation of Ecosystem Management and Its Application to the National Environmental Policy Act: The Case of the U.S. Forest Service 19 (Feb. 1997) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia) (on file with University of Vermont);
29. Caldwell, supra note 6.
30. Problems and Issues with the National Environmental Policy Act: Hearing Before the H. Comm. on Resources, 105th Cong. 65-66, 88-92 (1998) (statement of Lynton K. Caldwell, Professor of Public and Environmental Affairs and Staff Consultant to the Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on a National Policy for the Environment, 1968-(1970).
31. LAZARUS, supra note 6, at 43-44, 51 (recounting the roots of environmental law in the late 1960s and early 1970s and noting that the apparent sudden appearance of environmental law, called a "republican moment" by some, was, in fact, the "culmination of an era of protest").
32. LYNTON K. CALDWELL, SCIENCE AND THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT: REDIRECTING POLICY THROUGH PROCEDURAL REFORM 123-25 (1982).
33. Id. at 2-3. Caldwell later notes: The environmental impact statement is not a scientific document, nor does the statute specify the use of science in its preparation. But use of science is implicit in the impact statement because the five points upon which the act requires the agencies to report findings could not be adequately addressed without recourse to science. This practical necessity became an explicit requirement under Regulations for Implementing the Procedural Provisions of NEPA issued in 1978 by the Council on Environmental Quality. The integrated use of science as required in Section 102(2)(a) of NEPA was explicitly joined to the preparation of impact statements by the regulations (e.g., Section 1502.6) and was reinforced by other provisions regarding the uses of science, especially Section 1502.24 on methodology and scientific accuracy. Section 1500.3 declares that "the regulations apply to the whole of Section 102(2) [of the statute].
34. Id. at 13 (brackets in original).
35. National Environmental Policy Act, § 202 (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 4342).
36. Exec. Order No. 11,514, 3 C.F.R. 902 (1996-1970), as amended by Exec. Order No. 11,991, 3 C.F.R. 123, reprinted as amended in 42 U.S.C. § 4331 n.
37. Interim Guidelines, 35 Fed. Reg. 7,390 (May 12, 1970);
38. Guidelines, 36 Fed. Reg. 7,724 (Apr. 23, 1971).
39. Proposed Guidelines, 38 Fed. Reg. 10,856 (May 2, 1973);
40. Guidelines, 38 Fed. Reg. 20,550 (Aug. 1, 1973).
41. Exec. Order No. 11,991, supra note 20. Executive Order No. 11,991 also amended section 2(g) of Exec. Order No. 11,514 to require Federal agencies to comply with CEQ regulations except where such compliance would be inconsistent with statutory requirements.
42. 40 C.F.R. pts. 1500-1508.
43. 40 C.F.R. § 1507.3(a).
44. See also Protection and Enhancement of Environmental Quality, Exec. Order No. 11,514, § 2(b).
45. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1501.2(c), 1502.14(a), 1507.2(d), 1508.9(b);
46. see also Dinah Bear, Some Modest Suggestions for Improving Implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act, 43 NAT. RESOURCES J. 931, 937-41 (2004).
47. 40 C.F.R. § 1501.4(e)(2)(ii) (referring to findings of no significant impact). 40 C.F.R. § 1506.10 provides for public notice and a comment period of at least 45 days following issuance of a draft environmental impact statement and public notice of availability of at least 30 days following issuance of a final environmental impact statements.
48. NEPA, 43 Fed. Reg. 55,990 (Nov. 29, 1978);
49. NEPA - Regulations, 44 Fed. Reg. 873 (Jan. 3, 1979).
50. 40 C.F.R. pt. 1504.
51. In 1978, CEQ issued regulations (effective 1979) (43 Fed. Reg. 55,990, Nov. 29, 1978). The draft regulations were published for comment (43 Fed. Reg. 25,230, June 9, 1978), responses to comments were discussed in the preamble to the final rule (43 Fed. Reg. 55,978, Nov. 29, 1978), and a technical correction was made the following year (44 Fed. Reg. 873, Jan. 3, 1979). The regulations included § 1508.27(b)(4) ("The degree to which the effects on the quality of the human environment are likely to be highly controversial)" and § 1508.27(b)(5) ("The degree to which the possible effects on the human environment are highly uncertain or involve unique or unknown risks").
52. 51 Fed. Reg. 15,625 (Apr. 25, 1986) (responses to comments on the proposed rule discussed in preamble beginning at 51 Fed. Reg. 15,618).
53. 40 C.F.R. § 1502.22.
54. Lazarus, supra note 1, at 52, 69-70.
55. NAT'L RES. COUNCIL, IMPROVING THE USE OF THE "BEST SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION AVAILABLE" STANDARD IN FISHERMS MANAGEMENT 1 (2004) [hereinafter NRC, BSIA] (Report of the Ocean Studies Board Committee on Defining Best Scientific Information Available for Fisheries Management);
56. see also Bryant, supra note 1, at 4 n.10 (citing references to "best scientific information available" in statutes).
57. F. DAVID PEAT, FROM CERTAINTY TO UNCERTAINTY: THE STORY OF SCIENCE AND IDEAS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 1-26 (2002).
58. Sheila Jasanoff, What Judges Should Know About the Sociology of Science, 32 JURIMETRICS 345, 345-49 (1992);
59. see generally Bryant, supra note 1.
60. COMM. ON THE APPLICATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL THEORY TO ENVTL. PROBLEMS, COMM'N ON LIFE SCIS., NAT'L RES. COUNCIL, ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM-SOLVING: CONCEPTS AND CASE STUDIES 88-92 (1986) [hereinafter NRC, Ecological Knowledge].
61. NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 45.
62. Id. at 5-6.
63. Garry D. Brewer & Kerstin Lövgren, The Theory and Practice of Interdisciplinary Work, 32 POL'Y SCIS. 315, 315-17 (1999);
64. Garry D. Brewer, The Challenges of Interdisciplinarity, 32 POL'Y SCIS. 327, 327-37 (1999) (discussing the importance of multiple perspectives in assuring definition of the research problem and comprehensive interpretation of the results).
65. JASANOFF, supra note 4, at 20-21.
66. Id. at 22.
67. Id. at 4.
68. 449 F. 2d 1109, 1115 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
69. See also Caldwell, supra note 6, at 10 (quoting Judge Skelly Wright: "The reviewing courts probably cannot reverse a substantive decision on its merits, under Section 101, unless it be shown that the actual balance of costs and benefits that was struck was arbitrary or clearly gave insufficient weight to environmental values. But if the decision was reached procedurally without individualized consideration and balancing of environmental factors - conducted fully and in good faith - it is the responsibility of the courts to reverse.").
70. Id.
71. Marsh v. Or. Natural Res. Council, 490 U.S. 360, 375-78 (1989);
72. Kleppe v. Sierra Club, 427 U.S. 390, 410 n.21 (1976).
73. Vt. Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Res. Defense Council, Inc., 435 U.S. 519, 558 (1978);
74. Strycker's Bay Neighborhood Council, Inc. v. Karlen, 444 U.S. 223, 227-28 (1980).
75. Jim Chen, Legal Mythmaking in a Time of Mass Extinctions: Reconciling Stories of Origins with Human Destiny, 29 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 279, 294 (2005).
76. For example, the FAA, following direction in the Federal Aviation Act of 1956, as amended, established a requirement in Appendix A, FAA Order 1050.113, Environmental Impacts: Policies and Procedures A-60 June 8, 2004), http://www.airweb.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/ rgOrders.nsf/0/9552db552fd4495b862570660068adb1/$FILE /Order1050-1E.pdf, to use specific noise impact models. With respect to demonstrating compliance with other laws as part of the NEPA process, agencies with jurisdiction by law have in some instances prescribed methodology.
77. Under the National Historic Preservation Act, the National Park Service established Archeology and Historic Preservation: Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines, 48 Fed. Reg. 44,716 (Sept. 29, 1983).
78. Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, 467 U.S. 837,843-44 (1984).
79. Cynthia A. Reid, United States v. Mead Corp.: The Supreme Court's Failed Attempt to Clarify the Law of Agency Deference, ENVTL. LAW. 407, 414 (2001-2002)
80. (citing United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218,226-27 (2001)).
81. Id.
82. Skidmore v. Swift, 323 U.S. 134 (1944).
83. Id. at 140.
84. See, e.g., Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/ index.php?term=science (last visited Dec. 14, 2006) (describing the etymology of "science" from the Latin "scientia" or "scire," meaning knowledge).
85. See, e.g., Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/ index.php?term=epistemology (last visited Dec. 14, 2006) (describing the etymology of "epistemology" from the Greek terms for the study or philosophy of knowledge).
86. See Wikipedia, http://wn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
87. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
88. Steven D. Schafersman, An Introduction to Science: Scientific Thinking and the Scientific Method (Jan. 1994), http:// www.freeinquiry.com/intro-to-sci.html.
89. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricism (last visited Dec. 12, 2006).
90. See also Online Etymology Dictionary (describing the derivation of empiricism from en- "in" + peira "trial, experiment"), http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=empirical (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
91. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
92. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
93. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
94. Validity is defined in terms of whether the experiment or observation measures what it is intended to measure. An assertion or hypothesis is valid if it is supported by observations or facts. See, e.g., Merriam-Webster On-line Dictionary, http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/valid+ (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
95. Reliable means dependable or giving the same result in repeated trials. See id., http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/reliable (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
96. Reliability relates to consistency. See id.; see also Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability (last visited Dec. 14) 2006).
97. See Wikipedia, supra note 62.
98. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wild/Positivism (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
99. See Wikipedia, http://wn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism, Nov. 8, 2005.
100. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistomology (last visited Dec. 14, 2006.
101. See Wikipedia, supra note 61.
102. NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 45.
103. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism (last visited Dec. 14, 2006);
104. id., http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology (last visited Dec. 15, 2006).
105. J. Mozersky, Phil. 452, Current Issues in Metaphysics, Univ. Queens, Kingston, Canada (2005) (course description) (on file with author).
106. John Tresch, Mapping the Roads to Current Science, 309 SCIENCE 2167 (2005) (reviewing PETER J. BOWLER & IWAN RHYS MORUS, MAKING MODERN SCIENCE: A HISTORICAL SURVEY (2005)).
107. J.B. Shank, An Old Approach to a Revolutionary Regime, 309 SCIENCE 2168 (2005) (reviewing CHARLES COULSTON GILLISPIE, SCIENCE AND POLITY IN FRANCE: THE REVOLUTIONARY AND NAPOLEONIC YEARS (2004)).
108. Bryant, supra note 1, at 10-11.
109. See generally ANNA BRAMWELL, ECOLOGY IN THE 20TH CENTURY: A HISTORY (1989).
110. See, e.g., Frederick Kirschenmann, Director, Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, What Constitutes Sound Science?, Lecture at the annual Sigma Xi lecture, Iowa State University (Dec. 5, 2002), available at http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/pubs/speech/files/ 120502_science1.pdf;
111. Peter M. Sand-man, Sound Science (Sept 5, 2001), http://www.psandman.com/ col/soundsci.htm. Dr. Sandman is a journalist who has specialized in communication of environmental risk. He describes the debate between the precautionary principle and its alternative, sound science.
112. See also Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993) (sometimes referred to as the "junk" science decision);
113. Sharon Begley, Fingerprint Matches Come Under More Fire as Potentially Fallible, WALL ST. J., Oct. 7, 2005, at B1.
114. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
115. See, e.g., Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/ index.php?term=science (last visited Dec. 14, 2006) (discussing the origin of the term "science" from the Latin "scientia" or "scire," meaning knowledge, and noting that these terms are related to "scindere," meaning "to cut, divide," from the Proto-Indo-European base *skei-(compare to Greek "skhizein," meaning "to split, rend, cleave," Gothic "skaidan," Old English "sceadan," meaning "to divide, separate")).
116. See Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory (last visited Dec. 14, 2006).
117. See, e.g., EDWARD O. WILSON, CONSILIENCE: THE UNITY OF KNOWLEDGE 73 (1998).
118. COMM. ON THE GEOLOGIC RECORD OF BIOSPHERE DYNAMICS, NAT'L RES. COUNCIL, THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD OF ECOLOGICAL DYNAMICS: UNDERSTANDING THE BIOTIC EFECTS OF FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 5 (2005).
119. 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
120. Bear, supra note 26, 944 & nn.49-52.
121. 923 S.W. 2d, 549, 560 (Tex. 1995).
122. Kenneth A. Wright, Daubert Challenges in Condemnation, 32 URB. LAW. 507-22,511 (2000).
123. Id. at 560.
124. Id.
125. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 589-90.
126. Id. at 593.
127. Id. at 594.
128. Id. at 593.
129. Id. at 593-94.
130. Id. at 594.
131. Id.
132. See also Bear, supra note 26, at 944, n.49 (citing Daubert in summarizing four factors).
133. Hells Canyon Preservation Council v. Jacoby, 9 F. Supp. 2d 1216, 1223-24 (D. Or. 1998).
134. Id. at 1241.
135. See i ] Council on Environmental Quality, Selected NEPA Cases in 1998, NEPANET http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/nepanet.htm (last visited Dec. 15, 2006).
136. 46 F.3d 606, 619 (7th Cir. 1995), reh'g denied (Apr. 5, 1995).
137. Id.
138. Id.
139. (citing Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, 401 U.S. 402,415 (1971)).
140. Id.
141. (citing Motor Vehicle Mfrs. Ass'n v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 463 U.S. 29, 43(1983)).
142. Marita, 46 F.3d at 621.
143. Id. at 622.
144. Id.
145. Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 2001, Pub. L. No. 106-554, § 515, 114 Stat. 2763A-125, 2763A-153 to 2763A-154 (2000) (codified at 44 U.S.C.A. § 3516 n.).
146. M. Andrew McLain, Note, An Update on the Implementation of the Data Quality Act: The Cost of Sound Science, VT. J. ENTL. L., Apr. 28, 2005, http://www.vjel.org/editorials/2005S/MclainFinal.htm.
147. Council on Environmental Quality, Notice of Availability: Final guidelines for ensuring and maximizing the quality, objectivity, utility and integrity of information, 67 Fed. Reg. 65, 354 (Oct. 24, 2002).
148. McLain, supra note 106, at 12 n.50.
149. Sheila Jasanoff & Dorothy Nelkin, Science, Technology, and the Limits of Judicial Competence, 68 AM. B. ASS'N J. 1094, 1099 (1982).
150. See also Bryant, supra note 1, at 6-8, 11;
151. Wikipedia, http://en.kiwipedia.org/wiki/Adversarial_process (last visited Dec. 15, 2006).
152. McLain, supra note 106, at 11.
153. Susan Bisong, Federal Agencies Subject to Data Quality Act, MODRALL SPERLING, 2003, available at http:// library.findlaw.com/2003/Jan/14/132464.html.
154. Thomas Dietz et al., The Struggle to Govern the Commons, 302 SCIENCE 1907 (2003).
155. Jasanoff & Nelkin, supra note 109.
156. See also Bryant, supra note 1, at 35 (discussing what some have called an "excess of objectivity").
157. Jasanoff & Nelkin, supra note 109.
158. Bryant, supra note 1, at 4.
159. GEORGE W. PRING & PENELOPE CANAN, SLAPPs: GETTING SUED FOR SPEAKING OUT 3(1996).
160. McLain, supra note 106, at 6-7.
161. CALDWELL, supra note 17, at 9-10.
162. See also 40 C.F.R. § 1500.6.
163. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1501.7, 1502.6.
164. 40 C.F.R. § 1502.24.
165. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1501.6, 1501.7, 1502.25.
166. 40 C.F.R. § 1502.22 (51 Fed. Reg. 15625, Apr. 25, 1986).
167. NEPA, § 102(2)(E)(authority for preparing Environmental Assessment);
168. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1502.12, 1508.27(a)(4).
169. 40 C.F.R. § 1502.14(a).
170. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1500.1(b) ("The information must be of high quality. Accurate scientific analysis, expert agency comments, and public scrutiny are essential to implementing NEPA."), 1502.24.
171. NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 43, 58-59;
172. see also Bryant, supra note 1, at 13 (noting that most of the losses by the National Marine Fisheries Service have been because the Agency "fails to provide a rational connection between the evidence in the administrative record and the action").
173. 40 C.F.R. § 1502.22(b) (51 Fed. Reg. 15,625, Apr. 25, 1986).
174. 42 Fed. Reg. 26,961 (May 25, 1977), reprinted in 42 U.S.C. 4331 n. (Exec. Order No. 11,990 was amended by Exec. Order No. 12,608, 52 Fed. Reg. 34,617 (Sept. 9, 1987), to delete reference to the Water Resources Council.).
175. 42 Fed. Reg. 26,951 (May 25, 1977), reprinted in 42 U.S.C. 4331 n. (Exec. Order No. 11,988, § 2(d), was amended by Exec. Order No. 12,148, 44 Fed. Reg. 43,239 (July 20, 1979), to update the name of the Federal Emergency Management Agency.).
176. PEAT, supra note 35, at 154-86.
177. Bryant, supra note 1, at 12 (citing B.H. Thompson, Jr., Tragically Difficult: The Obstacles to Governing the Commons, 30 ENVTL. L. 241, 241-78 (2000)).
178. NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 22-23, 48.
179. Id.
180. See e.g., Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Type_I_and_typeII_errors (last visited Dec. 31, 2007).
181. See, e.g., Sharon Schwartz & Kenneth M. Carpenter, The Right Answer for the Wrong Question: Consequences of Type III Error for Public Health Research, 89 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 1175 (1999);
182. Bryant, supra note 1, at 7.
183. Bryant, supra note 1, at 7.
184. Id.
185. See, e.g., Erik Stokstad, Learning to Adapt, 309 SCIENCE, 688, 688-90 (2005);
186. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_management (last visited Dec. 15, 2006).
187. ANN M. HOOKER, REPORT OF THE 1993 MONITORING AND EVALUATION TASK FORCE (1993) (prepared for the U.S.D.A. Forest Serv. Nat'l Forest Sys. & Res. Deputy Areas, Washington, D.C.).
188. See also Stokstad, supra note 138, at 688-90.
189. Bryant, supra note 1, at 8;
190. see also NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 25.
191. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1500.4(i), 1502.4, 1502.20, 1508.18, 1508.28.
192. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1500.4(i), 1502.4(c),1502.20, 1508.28.
193. Bryant, supra note 1, at 7-8 (noting that "legal and political institutions seek longterm certainty").
194. Exec. Order No. 13,148, 65 Fed. Reg. 24,595 (Apr. 26, 2000).
195. Id. at 24,595-98 (§§ 202, 301, 401, 402).
196. NAT'L RES. COUNCIL. OUR COMMON JOURNEY: A TRANSITION TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY (1999).
197. See also Robert W. Kates et al. Sustainability Science, 292 SCIENCE 641, 641-42 (2001);
198. and a related article by same title and the same authors presented at the Belfer Center for Science & International Affairs at the Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Dec. 2000, available at http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/BCSIA/sust.nsf/pubs /pub7/$File/2000-33.pdf.
199. Kates et al., supra note 146.
200. David Dickson, "Sustainability Science" Is No Solution, SCI. & DEV. NETWORK, Aug. 12, 2002, http://www.scidev.net /dossiers/
201. Peter H. Raven, Science, Sustainability, and the Human Prospect, 297 SCIENCE 954 (2002) (Presidential address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting, Science in a Connected World, Feb. 2002).
202. Call for a Shift to "Sustainability Science," NEWS IN SCIENCE, AUSTRALLAN BROAD. CORP., June 27, 2001, http:// www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s319176.htm, accessed Mar. 30, 2005) (interview with Ian Lowe, Professor, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia).
203. Kates et al., supra note 146.
204. Turner et al., Science and Technology for Sustainable Development Special Feature: A Framework for Vulnerability Analysis in Sustainability Science, 100 PNAS 8074, 8074 (2003).
205. Id. (citations omitted).
206. Id.
207. Id. at 8075.
208. Bryant, supra note 1, at 7 (citing A. Dan Tarlock, Who Owns Science? 10 PA. ST. ENVTL. L. REV. 135 (2002)).
209. Dietz et al., supra note 112, at 1907.
210. Elizabeth Kolbert, The Climate of Man - III: What Can Be Done? NEW YORKER, May 9, 2005, at 52, 63.
211. Turner et al., supra note 152, at 8076 (citing NAT'L RES. COUNCIL, UNDER-STANDING RISK: INFORMING DECISIONS IN A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY (P. Stern & H.V. Fineberg eds., 1996).
212. Paul R. Erlich & Donald Kennedy, Millennium Assessment of Human Behavior, 309 SCIENCE 562, 563 (2005).
213. See, e.g., HAROLD D. LASSWELL, THE DECISION PROCESS: SEVEN CATEGORIES OF FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 2 (1956).
214. Harold D. Lasswell, Conflict and Leadership: The Process of Decision and the Nature of Authority, in CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM ON CONFLICT IN SOCIETY, at ch. 13 (A.V.S. de Reuck & Julie Knight eds., 1966).
215. Harold D. Lasswell, The Nature of Leadership: A Policy Sciences Approach 4 (n.d.) (unpublished manuscript, on file with the Yale Manuscripts and Archives, Yale Univ. Library, New Haven, Conn.).
216. Matthew R. Auer, The Policy Sciences in Critical Perspective (Oct. 22-24, 2004) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author) (presented at the Annual Policy Sciences Institute, Yale Law School, New Haven, Conn.).
217. 40 C.F.R. §§ 1500.4(g), 1501.7.
218. Hooker, supra note 139.
219. NAT'L RES. COUNCIL, DECISION MAKING FOR THE ENVIRONMENT: SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE RESEARCH PRIORITIES (Garry D. Brewer & Paul C. Stern eds., 2005) (report by the Panel on Social and Behavioral Science Research Priorities for Environmental Decision Making, Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change) [hereinafter NRC, DECISION MAKING];
220. Ehrlich & Kennedy, supra note 160, at 562-S63.
221. NRC, DECISION MAKING, supra note 167, at 85.
222. Id.
223. Id. at 87.
224. Brewer & Lövgren, supra note 40, at 315;
225. but see William Ascher, Resolving the Hidden Differences Among Perspectives on Sustainable Development, 32 POL'Y SCIS. 351, 351-77 (1999).
226. See generally RONALD D. BRUNNER ET AL., ADAPTIVE GOVERNANCE: INTEGRATING SCIENCE, POLICY, AND DECISION MAKING (2005).
227. Herman A. Karl & Elena Daly, Challenges and Obstacles to the Promise of Collaborative Approaches as a More Effective Way for Restoring Ecosystems, Deciding Environmental and Land Use Policy (Oct. 21-23, 2005) (panel presentation at the Policy Sciences Annual Institute, Yale University);
228. see also Welcome, What Is Music?, MIT-USGS Science Collaborative, http://web.mit.edu/dusp/epp/music/ (last visited Dec. 15, 2006).
229. HAROLD D. LASSWELL, A PREVIEW OF POLICY SCIENCES 43 (1971).
230. Interview with Ronald J. Birk, Director, Applied Sciences Program, National Aeronautics and Space Agency, in Washington, D.C. (Nov. 1, 2005).
231. BRIAN NATTRASS & MARY ALTOMARE, THE NATURAL STEP FOR BUSINESS: WEALTH, ECOLOGY & THE EVOLUTIONARY CORPORATION 32-35 (1999).
232. See, e.g., id. at 31-42.
233. For an earlier work, see, for example, PAUL HAWKEN, THE ECOLOGY OF COMMERCE: A DECLARATION OF SUSTAINABILITY (1993).
234. Stacy Lynn Bettison & Jeremy Greenhouse, Profile: The Sustainable Business Lawyer, PURSUITS (Env't, Energy, & Natural Res. I. Sec., Fed. B. Ass'n, Washington, D.C.), Spring 2005, at 1, 7-8.
235. Mindy Lubber, Luncheon Address at the American University, Washington College of Law, American Bar Association Section on Environment, Energy and Resources, New York State Bar Assoc., and Center for International Environmental Law Conference: The Legal Dimensions of Climate Change: A Conference by and for the Legal Profession, Washington, D.C. (Nov. 15, 2005).
236. Bryant, supra note 1, at 2.
237. Id. at 3.
238. Jacob A. Stein, The Sweet Science, WASH. LAW., Mar. 2006, at 48.
239. Bryant, supra note 1, at 6-7.
240. Id. at 6 n.13
241. (citing William Ruckelshaus, Science and Public Policy: The Twain Must Meet, Wolfle Lecture at the University of Washington (May 16, 2002)).
242. Bryant, supra note 1, at 7
243. (citing Tarlock, supra note 156).
244. NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 25, 27.
245. Id. at 25.
246. Id. at 59.
247. Bryant, supra note 1, at 10.
248. NRC, BSIA, supra note 1, at 59.
249. Id. at 32.
250. Id. at 53, 58-59.
251. Bryant, supra note 1, at 8
252. (citing A. Dan Tarlock, Slouching Toward Eden: The Ecopragmatic Challenges of Ecosystem Revival, 87 MINN. L. REv. 1173 (2003)).
253. NRC, BSIA, supra note 34, at 35.
254. Id. at 36.
255. Id.
256. Id. at 39.
257. Id. at 48.
258. Bear, supra note 26, at 932.