Ecological responses of Antarctic krill to environmental variability: Can we predict the future?

Antarctic Science

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 253-266

  Quetin, Langdon B ^a   Ross, Robin M ^a   Fritsen, Christian H ^b   Vernet, Maria ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b DESERT RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Climate change; Larval krill; Palmer LTER; Sea ice dynamics; Southern Ocean GLOBEC

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE; CLIMATE CHANGE; CRUSTACEAN; ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; GROWTH RATE; HABITAT; LIFE CYCLE; MICROBIAL COMMUNITY; PIGMENT; PREDICTION; RECRUITMENT; SEA ICE;

SOUTHERN OCEAN;

DECAPODA (CRUSTACEA); EUPHAUSIACEA;

EID: 34249045953     PISSN: 09541020     EISSN: 13652079     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0954102007000363     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. AINLEY, D.G., CLARKE, E.D., ARRIGO, K.R., FRASER, W.R., KATO, A., BARTON, K.J. & WILSON, P.R. 2005. Decadal-scale changes in the climate and biota of the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean, 1950s to the 1990s. Antarctic Science, 17, 171-182.
2. ATKINSON, A., SIEGEL, V., PAKHOMOV, E.A. & ROTHERY, P. 2004. Long-term decline in krill stock and increase in salps within the Southern Ocean. Nature, 432, 100-103.
3. ATKINSON, A., SHREEVE, R.S. & HIRST, A.G. 2006. Natural growth rates in Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba): II. Predictive models based on food, temperature, body length, sex, and maturity stage. Limnology and Oceanography, 51, 973-987.
4. AZZALI, M. & KALINOWSKI, J. 2000. Spatial and temporal distribution of krill Euphausia superba biomass in the Ross Sea (1989-1990 and 1994). In FARANDA, F.M., GUGLIELMO, L. & IANORA, A., eds. Ross Sea ecology. Berlin: Springer, 433-455.
5. BRINE, D.T. & IQBAL, M. 1983. Diffuse and global solar spectral irradiance under cloudless skies. Solar Energy, 30, 447-453.
6. CLARKE, A., MURPHY, E.J., MEREDITH, M.P., KING, J.C., PECK, L.S., BARNES, D.K.A. & SMITH, R.C. 2007. Climate change and the marine ecosystem of the western Antarctic Peninsula. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B362, 149-166.
7. COOK, A.J., FOX, A.J., VAUGHAN, D.G. & FERRIGNO, J.G. 2005. Retreating glacier fronts on the Antarctic Peninsula over the past half-century. Science, 308, 541-544.
8. CROXALL, J., PRINCE, P. & REID, K. 1999. Diet, provisioning and productivity responses of marine predators to differences in availability of Antarctic krill. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 177, 115-131.
9. CROXALL, J.P., TRATHAN, P.N. & MURPHY, E.J. 2002. Environmental change and Antarctic seabird populations. Science, 297, 1510-1514.
10. CUZIN-ROUDY, J. & AMSLER, M.O. 1991. Ovarian development and sexual maturity staging in Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba Dana (Euphausiacea). Journal of Crustacean Biology, 11, 236-249.
11. DALY, K.L. 1990. Overwintering development, growth, and feeding of larval Euphausia superba in the Antarctic marginal ice zone. Limnology and Oceanography, 35, 1564-1576.
12. DALY, K.L. 1998. Physioecology of juvenile Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) during spring in ice-covered seas. Antarctic Research Series, 73, 183-198.
13. DALY, K.L. 2004. Overwintering growth and development of larval Euphausia superba: an interannual comparison under varying environmental conditions west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Deep-Sea Research II, 51, 2139-2168.
14. DIECKMANN, G.S., EICKEN, H., HAAS, C., GARRISON, D.L., GLEITZ, M., LANGE, M., NÖTHIG, E.-M., SPINDLER, M., SULLIVAN, C.W., THOMAS, D.N. & WEISSENBERGER, J. 1998. A compilation of data on sea ice algal standing crop from the Bellingshausen, Amundsen, and Weddell seas from 1983 to 1994. Antarctic Research Series, 73, 85-92.
15. DIERSSEN, H.M., SMITH, R.C. & VERNET, M. 2002. Glacial meltwater dynamics in coastal waters west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 1790-1795.
16. DUCKLOW, H.W., BAKER, K., MARTINSON, D.G., QUETIN, L.B., ROSS, R.M., SMITH, R.C., STAMMERJOHN, S.E., VERNET, M. & FRASER, W.R. 2007. Marine pelagic ecosystems: the West Antarctic Peninsula. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B362, 67-94.
17. EDWARDS, M. & RICHARDSON, A.J. 2004. The impact of climate change on the phenology of the plankton community and trophic mismatch. Nature, 430, 881-884
18. EVERSON, I. 2000. Role of krill in marine food webs: the Southern Ocean. In EVERSON, I., ed. Krill: biology, ecology and fisheries. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 194-201.
19. FRASER, W.R. & HOFMANN, E.E. 2003. A predator's perspective on causal links between climate change, physical forcing and ecosystem response. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 265, 1-15.
20. FRAZER, T.K., QUETIN, L.B. & ROSS, R.M. 2002. Abundance, sizes and developmental stages of larval krill, Euphausia superba, during winter in ice-covered seas west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Journal of Plankton Research, 24, 1067-1077.
21. FRITSEN, C.H. 1996. Ecology of pack ice microbial communities. PhD thesis, University of Southern California.
22. FRITSEN, C.H., ACKLEY, S.F., KREMER, J.N. & SULLIVAN, C.W. 1998. Floodfreeze cycles and microalgal dynamics in Antarctic pack ice. Antarctic Research Series, 73, 1-21.
23. FRITSEN, C.H. & SULLIVAN, C.W. 1997. Distributions and dynamics of microbial communities in the pack of the western Weddell Sea, Antarctica. In BATTAGLIA, B., VALENCIA, J. & WALTON, D.W.H., eds. Antarctic communities: species, structure and survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 101-106.
24. GARRISON, D.L. & CLOSE, A.R. 1993. Winter ecology of the sea ice biota in Weddell Sea pack ice. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 96, 17-31.
25. GARRISON, D.L., ACKLEY, S.F. & BUCK, K.R. 1983. A physical mechanism for establishing algal populatins in frazil ice. Nature, 306, 363-365.
26. GARRISON, D.L., CLOSE, A.R. & REIMNITZ, E. 1989. Algae concentrated by frazil ice: evidence from laboratory and field measurements. Antarctic Science, 1, 313-316.
27. GARRISON, D.L., JEFFRIES, M.O., GIBSON, A., COALE, S.L., NEENAN, D., FRITSEN, C.H., OKOLODKOV, Y.B. & GOWING, M.M. 2003. Development of sea ice microbial communities during autumn ice formation in the Ross Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 259, 1-15.
28. GILLE, S.T. 2002. Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s. Science, 295, 1275-1277.
29. GOODIN, D.G. & SMITH, R.C. 2003. Century to millennial timescale - synthesis. In GREENLAND, D., GOODIN, D.G. & SMITH, R.C., eds. Climate variability and ecosystem response at Long-Term Ecological Research sites. New York: Oxford University Press, 384-388.
30. HAGEN, W., KATTNER, G., TERBRÜGGEN, A. & VAN VLEET, E.S. 2001. Lipid metabolism of Antarctic krill Euphausia superba and its ecological implications. Marine Biology, 139, 95-104.
31. HEWITT, R., DEMER, D.A. & EMERY, J.H. 2003. An 8-year cycle in krill biomass density inferred from acoustic surveys conducted in the vicinity of the South Shetland Islands during the austral summers of 1991/92 through 2001/2002. Aquatic Living Resources, 16, 205-213.
32. HOFMANN, E.E. & HUSREVOGLU, Y.S. 2003. A circumpolar modeling study of habitat control of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) reproductive success. Deep-Sea Research II, 51, 1323-1331.
33. HOFMANN, E.E. & MURPHY, E.J. 2004. Advection, krill and Antarctic marine ecosystems. Antarctic Science, 16, 487-499.
34. HOFMANN, E.E., CAPELLA, J.E., ROSS, R.M. & QUETIN, L.B. 1992. Models of the early life history of Euphausia superba. Part I. Time and temperature dependent dependence during the descent-ascent cycle. Deep-Sea Research, 39, 1177-1200.
35. HOSHIAI, T. 1985. Autumnal proliferation of ice-algae in Antarctic sea-ice. In SIEGFRIED, W.R., CONDY, P.R. & LAWS, R.M., eds. Antarctic nutrient cycles and food webs. Berlin: Springer, 89-92.
36. JACOBS, S.S. & COMISO, J.C. 1997. Climate variability in the Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas. Journal of Climate, 10, 697-709.
37. JU, S.-J. & HARVEY, H.R. 2004. Lipids as markers of nutritional condition and diet in the Antarctic krill Euphausia superba and Euphausia crystallorophias during austral winter. Deep-Sea Research II, 51, 2199-2214.
38. KOTTMEIER, S.T. & SULLIVAN, C.W. 1987. Late winter primary production and bacterial production in sea ice and seawater west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 36, 287-298.
39. LAWS, R.M. 1985. The ecology of the Southern Ocean. American Scientist, 73, 26-40.
40. LIPSKY, J.D. 2005. AMLR 2004/2005 Field season report - objectives, accomplishments, and tentative conclusions. La Jolla, CA: NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center, 167 pp.
41. LIU, J., CURRY, J.A. & MARTINSON, D.G. 2004. Interpretation of recent Antarctic sea ice variability. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, 10.1029/2003GL018732.
42. LOEB, V., SIEGEL, V., HOLM-HANSEN, O., HEWITT, R., FRASER, W., TRIVELPIECE, W. & TRIVELPIECE, S. 1997. Effects of sea-ice extent and krill or salp dominance on the Antarctic food web. Nature, 387, 897-900.
43. MARSCHALL, H.-P. 1988. The overwintering strategy of Antarctic krill under the pack-ice of the Weddell Sea. Polar Biology, 2, 245-250.
44. MARR, J.W.S. 1962. The natural history and geography of the Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana). Discovery Reports, 32, 33-464.
45. MARSHALL, G.J., STOTT, P.A., TURNER, J., CONNOLLEY, W.M., KING, J.C. & LACHLAN- COPE, T.A. 2004. Causes of exceptional atmospheric circulation changes in the Southern Hemisphere. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, 10.1029/2004GL019952.
46. MASSOM, R.A., STAMMERJOHN, S.E., SMITH, R.C., POOK, M.J., IANNUZZI, R.A., ADAMS, N., MARTINSON, D.G., VERNET, M., FRASER, W.R., QUETIN, L.B., ROSS, R.M., MASSOM, Y. & KROUSE, H.R. 2006. Extreme anomalous atmospheric circulation in the West Antarctic Peninsula region in austral spring and summer 2001/02, and its profound impact on sea ice and biota. Journal of Climate, 19, 3544-3571.
47. MELNIKOV, I. 1998. Winter production of sea ice algae in the western Weddell Sea. Journal of Marine Systems, 17, 195-205.
48. MEREDITH, M.P. & KING, J.C. 2005. Rapid climate change in the ocean west of the Antarctic Peninsual during the second half of the 20th century. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, 10.1029/2005GL024042.
49. MEYER, B. & OETTL, B. 2005. Effects of short-term starvation on composition and metabolism of larval Antarctic krill Euphausia superba. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 292, 263-270.
50. MEYER, B., ATKINSON, A., BLUME, B. & BATHMANN, U.V. 2003. Feeding and energy budgets of larval Antarctic krill Euphausia superba in summer. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 257, 167-177.
51. MEYER, B., ATKINSON, A., STÜBING, D., OETTL, B., HAGEN, W. & BATHMANN, U.V. 2002. Feeding and energy budgets of Antarctic krill Euphausia superba at the onset of winter - I. Furcilia III larvae. Limnology and Oceanography, 47, 943-952.
52. MOLINE, M.A., CLAUSTRE, H., FRAZER, T.K., SCHOFIELD, O. & VERNET, M. 2004. Alteration of the food web along the Antarctic Peninsula in response to a regional warming trend. Global Change Biology, 10, 1973-1980.
53. MURPHY, E.J., THORPE, S.E., WATKINS, J.L. & HEWITT, R. 2004a. Modeling the krill transport pathways in the Scotia Sea: spatial and environmental connections generating the seasonal distribution of krill. Deep-Sea Research II, 51, 1435-1456.
54. MURPHY, E.J., WATKINS, J.L., MEREDITH, M.P., WARD, P., TRATHAN, P.N. & THORPE, S.E. 2004b. Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front to the northeast of South Georgia: horizontal advection of krill and its role in the ecosystem. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109 (C1), art. C01029.
55. MURPHY, E.J., WATKINS, J.L., TRATHAN, P.N., REID, K., MEREDITH, M.P., THORPE, S.E., JOHNSTON, N.M., CLARKE, A., TARLING, G.A., COLLINS, M.A., FORCADA, J., SHREEVE, R.S., ATKINSON, A., KORB, R., WHITEHOUSE, M.J., WARD, P., RODHOUSE, P.G., ENDERLEIN, P.L., HIRST, A.G., MARTIN, A.R., HILL, S.L., STANILAND, I.J., POND, D.W., BRIGGS, D.R., CUNNINGHAM, N.J. & FLEMING, A.H. 2007. Spatial and temporal operation of the Scotia Sea ecosystem: a review of large-scale links in a krill centred food web. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B362, 113-148.
56. NICOL, S. 2000. Understanding krill growth and aging: the contribution of experimental studies. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 57(Suppl. 3), 168-177.
57. OTTERSEN, G.A. & LOENG, H. 2000. Covariability in early growth and yearclass strength of Barents Sea cod, haddock and herring: the environmental link. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57, 339-348.
58. PAKHOMOV, E.A. & FRONEMAN, P.W. 2004. Zooplankton dynamics in the eastern Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean during the austral summer 1997/1998; Part 2: Grazing impact. Deep-Sea Research II, 51, 2617-2631.
59. PARKINSON, C.L. 2002. Trends in the length of the southern Ocean sea ice seasons, 1979-1999. Annals of Glaciology, 34, 435-440.
60. PARSONS, T.R., MAITA, Y. & LALLI, C.M. 1984. A manual of chemical and biological methods for seawater analysis. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 173 pp.
61. PEPIN, P. 1989. Using growth histories to estimate larval fish mortality rates. Rapport Procedes-verbaux Réunion des Conseil Internationale Exploration de la Mer, 191, 324-329.
62. PEPIN, P. 1991. The effect of temperature and size on development and mortality rates of pelagic life history stages of marine fish. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 48, 503-518.
63. PRIDDLE, J., CROXALL, J.P., EVERSON, I., HEYWOOD, R.B., MURPHY, E.J., PRINCE, P.A. & SEAR, C.B. 1988. Large-scale fluctuations in distribution and abundance of krill - a discussion of possible causes. In SAHRHAGE, D., ed. Antarctic resources and variability. Berlin: Springer, 169-182.
64. QUETIN, L.B. & ROSS, R.M. 1984. Depth distribution of developing Euphausia superba embryos, predicted from sinking rates. Marine Biology, 79, 47-53.
65. QUETIN, L.B. & ROSS, R.M. 1992. A Long-Term Ecological Research strategy for polar environmental research. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 25, 233-238.
66. QUETIN, L.B. & ROSS, R.M. 2001. Environmental variability and its impact on the reproductive cycle of Antarctic krill. American Zoologist, 41, 74-89.
67. QUETIN, L.B. & ROSS, R.M. 2003. Episodic recruitment in Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, in the Palmer LTER study region. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 259, 185-200.
68. QUETIN, L.B. & ROSS, R.M. & CLARKE, A. 1994. Krill energetics: seasonal and environmental aspects of the physiology of Euphausia superba. In EL-SAYED, S., ed. Southern Ocean ecology: the BIOMASS perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 165-184.
69. QUETIN, L.B., ROSS, R.M., FRAZER, T.K., AMSLER, M.O., WYATT-EVENS, C. & OAKES, S.A. 2003. Growth of larval krill, Euphausia superba, in fall and winter west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Marine Biology, 143, 833-843.
70. QUETIN, L.B., ROSS, R.M., FRAZER, T.K. & HABERMAN, K.L. 1996. Factors affecting distribution and abundance of zooplankton, with an emphasis on Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba. Antarctic Research Series, 70, 357-371.
71. ROSS, R.M. & QUETIN, L.B. 1983. Spawning frequency and fecundity of the antarctic krill Euphausia superba. Marine Biology, 77, 201-205.
72. ROSS, R.M. & QUETIN, L.B. 1989. Energetic cost to develop to the first feeding stage of Euphausia superba Dana and the effect of delays in food availability. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 133, 103-127.
73. ROSS, R.M. & QUETIN, L.B. 1991. Ecological physiology of larval euphausiids, Euphausia superba (Euphausiacea). Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 31, 321-333.
74. ROSS, R.M. & QUETIN, L.B. 2000. Reproduction in Euphausiacea. In EVERSON, I., ed. Krill: biology, ecology and fisheries. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 150-181.
75. ROSS, R.M., QUETIN, L.B., BAKER, K.S., VERNET, M. & SMITH, R.C. 2000. Growth limitation in young Euphausia superba under field conditions. Limnology and Oceanography, 45, 31-43.
76. ROSS, R.M., QUETIN, L.B. & HABERMAN, K.L. 1998. Interannual and seasonal variability in short-term grazing impact of Euphausia superba in nearshore and offshore waters west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Journal of Marine Systems, 17, 261-273.
77. ROSS, R.M., QUETIN, L.B. & KIRSCH, E. 1988. Effect of temperature on developmental times and survival of early larval stages of Euphausia superba Dana. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 121, 55-71.
78. ROSS, R.M., QUETIN, L.B., NEWBERGER, T. & OAKES, S.A. 2004. Growth and behavior of larval krill (Euphausia superba) under the ice in late winter 2001 west of the Antarctic Peninsula. Deep-Sea Research II, 51, 2169-2184.
79. ROSS, R.M., QUETIN, L.B., MARTINSON, D.G., IANNUZZI, R., STAMMERJOHN, S.S. & SMITH, R.C. In press. Palmer LTER: patterns of distribution of major zooplankton species west of the Antarctic Peninsula over a twelve year span. Deep-Sea Research II.
80. SCAMBOS, T., HULBE, C. & FAHNESTOCK, M. 2003. Climate-induced ice shelf disintegration in the Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctic Research Series, 79, 79-92.
81. SIEGEL, V. 2000. Krill (Euphausiacea) demography and variability in abundance and distribution. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 57(Suppl. 3), 151-167.
82. SIEGEL, V. 2005. Distribution and population dynamics of Euphausia superba: summary of recent findings. Polar Biology, 29, 1-22.
83. SIEGEL, V. & LOEB, V. 1995. Recruitment of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) and possible causes for its variability. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 123, 45-56.
84. SIEGEL, V. & NICOL, S. 2000. Population parameters. In EVERSON, I., ed. Krill: biology, ecology and fisheries. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd, 103-149.
85. SIEGEL, V., ROSS, R.M. & QUETIN, L.B. 2003. Krill (Euphausia superba) recruitment indices from the western Antarctic Peninsula: are they representative of larger regions? Polar Biology, 26, 672-679.
86. SMETACEK, V. & NICOL, S. 2005. Polar ocean ecosystems in a changing world. Nature, 437, 362-368.
87. SMETACEK, V., SCHAREK, R. & NOTHIG, E.-M. 1990. Seasonal and regional variation in the pelagial and its relationship to the life history cycle of krill. In KERRY, K.R. & HEMPEL, G., eds. Antarctic ecosystems: ecological change and conservation. Berlin: Springer, 103-114.
88. SMITH, R.C. & STAMMERJOHN, S.E. 2001. Variations of surface air temperature and sea-ice extent in the western Antarctic Peninsula region. Annals of Glaciology, 33, 493-500.
89. SMITH, R.C., FRASER, W.R. & STAMMERJOHN, S.E. 2003. Climate variability and ecological response of the marine ecosystem in the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP) region. In GREENLAND, D., GOODIN, D.G. & SMITH, R.C., eds. Climate variability and ecosystem response at Long-Term Ecological Research sites. New York: Oxford University Press, 158-173.
90. SMITH, R.C., BAKER, K.S., DIERSSEN, H.M., STAMMERJOHN, S.E. & VERNET, M. 2001. Variability of primary production in an Antarctic marine ecosystem as estimated using a multi-scale sampling strategy. American Zoologist, 41, 40-56.
91. SMITH, R.C., AINLEY, D.G., BAKER, K., DOMACK, E., EMSLIE, S., FRASER, W.R., KENNETT, J., LEVENTER, A., MOSLEY-THOMPSON, E., STAMMERJOHN, S.E. & VERNET, M. 1999. Marine ecosystem sensitivity to climate change. BioScience, 49, 393-404.
92. SMITH, R.C., BAKER, K.S., FRASER, W.R., HOFMANN, E.E., KARL, D.M., KLINCK, J.M., QUETIN, L.B., PRÉZELIN, B.B., ROSS, R.M., TRIVELPIECE, W.Z. & VERNET, M. 1995. The Palmer LTER: A Long-Term Ecological Research program at Palmer Station, Antarctica. Oceanography, 8(3), 77-86.
93. SPIRIDONOV, V.A. 1995. Spatial and temporal variability in reproductive timing of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana). Polar Biology, 15, 161-174.
94. STAMMERJOHN, S.E., DRINKWATER, M.R., SMITH, R.C. & LIU, X. 2003. Ice-atmosphere interactions during sea-ice advance and retreat in the western Antarctic Peninsula region. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(C10), 10.1029/2002JC001543.
95. STAMMERJOHN, S.E., MARTINSON, D.G., SMITH, R.C. & IANNUZZI, R.A. In press. Sea ice in the Palmer LTER region: spatio-temporal variability from ecological and climate change perspectives. Deep-Sea Research II.
96. STENSETH, N.C. & MYSTERUD, A. 2002. Climate, changing phenology, and life history traits: nonlinearity and match-mismatch to the environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99, 13 379-13 381.
97. STRETCH, J.J., HAMNER, P.P., HAMNER, W.M., MICHEL, W.C., COOK, J. & SULLIVAN, C.W. 1988. Foraging behavior of antarctic krill Euphausia superba on sea ice microalgae. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 44, 131-139.
98. TAKAHASHI, M. & WATANABE, Y. 2004. Growth rate-dependent recruitment of Japanese anchovy Engraulis japonicus in the Kuroshio-Oyashio transitional waters. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 266, 227-238.
99. THORPE, S.E., HEYWOOD, K.J., STEVENS, D.P. & BRANDON, M.A. 2004. Tracking passive drifters in a high resolution ocean model: implications for interannual variability of larval krill transport to South Georgia. Deep-Sea Research, 51, 909-920.
100. TURNER, J. 2004. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Antarctica. International Journal of Climatology, 24, 1-31.
101. VAUGHAN, D.G., MARSHALL, G.J., CONNOLLEY, W.M., PARKINSON, C., MULVANEY, R., HODGSON, D.A., KING, J.C., PUDSEY, C.J. & TURNER, J. 2003. Recent rapid regional climate warming on the Antarctic Peninsula. Climatic Change, 60, 243-274.
102. VISSER, M.E. & BOTH, C. 2005. Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need for a yardstick. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B272, 2561-2569.
103. WALSH, J.J., DIETERLE, D.A. & LENES, J. 2001. A numerical analysis of carbon dynamics of the Southern Ocean phytoplankton community: the roles of light and grazing in effecting both sequestration of atmospheric CO2 and food availability to larval krill. Deep-Sea Research I, 48, 1-48.
104. WATKINS, J.L. 2000. Aggregation and vertical migration. In EVERSON, I., ed. Krill: biology, ecology, and fisheries. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 80-102.
105. YUAN, X. 2004. ENSO-related impacts on Antarctic sea ice: a synthesis of phenomenon and mechanisms. Antarctic Science, 16, 415-425.
106. YUAN, X. & MARTINSON, D.G. 2000. Antarctic sea ice extent variability and its global connectivity. Journal of Climate, 13, 1697-1717.
107. YUAN, X. & MARTINSON, D.G. 2001. The Antarctic Dipole and its predictability. Geophysical Research Letters, 28, 3609-3612.