Family-based treatment models targeting substance use and high-risk behaviors among adolescents: A review

Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work

Volumn 2, Issue 1-2, 2005, Pages 207-233

  Thompson, Sanna J ^a   Pomeroy, Elizabeth C ^a   Gober, Kelly ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

Author keywords

Adolescents; Family; Risky behaviors; Substance use; Treatment

Indexed keywords

EID: 34248603069     PISSN: 15433714     EISSN: 15433722     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1300/J394v02n01_12     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Aktan, G., 1995. Organizational framework for a substance use prevention program. International Journal of Addition, 30:185–201.
2. Aktan, G., Kumpfer, K. L., and Turner, C., 1996. Effectiveness of a family skills training program for substance abuse prevention with inner-city African-American families. International Journal of Addition, 31:158–175.
3. Becker, D., Hogue, A., and Liddle, H. A., 2002. Methods of engagement in family-based preventive intervention. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal, 19(2):163–179.
4. Borduin, C. M., Mann, B. J., Cone, L. T., Henggeler, S. W., Fucci, B. R., Blaske, D. M., and Williams, R. A., 1995. Multisystemic treatment of serious juvenile offenders:Long-term prevention of criminality and violence. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 63:569–578.
5. Broome, K. M., Joe, G. W., and Simpson, D. D., 2001. Engagement Models for Adolescents in DATOS-A. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16(6):608–610.
6. Broome, K. M., Knight, D. K., Knight, K., Hiller, M. L., and Simpson, D. D., 1997. Peer, family, and motivational influences on drug treatment process and recidivism for probationers. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53(4):387–397.
7. Brown, T. L., Henggeler, S. W., and Schoenwald, S. K., 1999. Multisystemic treatment of substance abusing and dependent juvenile delinquents:Effects on school attendance at posttreatment and 6-month follow-up. Children's Services:Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 2(2):81–93.
8. Bry, B. H., and Krinsley, K. E., 1992. Booster sessions and long-term effects of behavioral family therapyon adolescent substance use and school performance. Journal of Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 23(3):183–189.
9. Burns, B. J., and Weisz, J., 2000. Implementing child services and interventions:At the crossroads, Rockville, MD:Discussion and Plenary Session. NIMH Challenges for the 21st Century:Mental Health Services Research
10. Catalano, R. F., and Hawkins, J. D., 1996. “The social development model:A theory of antisocial behavior”. In Delinquency and crime:Current theories, Edited by:Hawkins, J. D., New York:Cambridge University Press.
11. Catalano, R. F., Kosterman, R., and Hawkins, J. D., 1996. Modeling the etiology of adolescent substance use:A test of the social development model. Journal of Drug Issues, 26(2):429–455.
12. Cauce, A. M., Reid, M., Landesman, S., and Gonzales, N. A., 1990. “Social support in young children:Measurement, structure, and behavioral impact”. In Social support:An interactional view, Edited by:Sarason, B. R., Sarason, I. G., and Pierce, G. R., 64–94. New York:Wiley.
13. Coatsworth, J. D., Santisteban, D. A., and McBride, C. K., 2001. Brief strategic family therapy versus community control:Engagement, retention, and an exploration of the moderating role of adolescent symptom severity. Family Process, 40(3):313–332.
14. DeLeon, G., 1996. Integrative recovery:A state paradigm. Substance Abuse, 17:51–63.
15. Dennis, M., Titus, J., Diamond, G., Babor, T., Donaldson, J., Godley, S. H., Tims, F., Webb, C., Liddle, H. A., and Scott, C., in press. The Cannabis Youth Treatment (CYT) experiment:A multi-site study of five approaches to outpatient treatment for adolescents. Addiction.
16. Formoso, D., Gonzales, N. A., and Aiken, L. S., 2000. Family conflict and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior:Protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(2):175–199.
17. Foxcroft, D. R., Ireland, D., and Lister-Sharp, D. J., 2003. Longer-term primary prevention for alcohol misuse in young people:A systematic review. Addiction, 98(4):397–411.
18. Gainey, R. R., Wells, E. A., Hawkins, J. D., and Catalano, R. F., 1993. Predicting treatment retention among cocaine users. International Journal of the Addictions, 28(6):487–505.
19. Haley, J., 1973. Strategic therapy when a child is presented as the problem. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 12(4):641–659.
20. Hawkins, J., Catalano, R. F., and Miller, J. Y., 1992. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood:Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1):64–105.
21. Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., and Morrison, D. M., 1992. “The Seattle Social Development Project:Effects of the first four years on protective factors and problem behaviors”. In Preventing antisocial behavior:Interventions from birth through adolescence, Edited by:McCord, J., and Tremblay, R., 139–161. New York, NY, US:The Guilford Press.
22. Henggeler, S. W., 1986. Multisystemic treatment of juvenile offenders:Effects on adolescent behavior and family interaction. Developmental Psychology, 22(1):132–141.
23. Henggeler, S. W., Borduin, C. M., Melton, G. B., Mann, B. J., Smith, L., Hall, J. A., Cone, L., and Fucci, B. R., 1991. Effects of multisystemic therapy on drug use and abuse in serious juvenile offenders:A progress report from two outcome studies. Family Dynamics of Addiction Quarterly, 1:40–51.
24. Henggeler, S. W., Clingempeel, W. G., Brondino, M. J., and Pickrel, S. G., 2002. Four year follow-up of multisystemic therapy with substance abusing and dependent juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41:868–874.
25. Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., and Smith, L. A., 1992. Family preservation using multisystemic therapy:An effective alternative to incarcerating serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 60:953–961.
26. Henggeler, S. W., Melton, G. B., Smith, L. A., Schoenwald, S. K., and Hanley, J. H., 1993. Family preservation using multisystemic treatment:Long-term follow-up to a clinical trial with serious juvenile offenders. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 2:283–293.
27. Henggler, S. W., Pickrel, S. G., Brondino, M. J., and Crouch, J. L., 1996. Eliminating (almost) treatment dropout of substance abusing or dependent delinquents through home-based multisystemic therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153:427–428.
28. Henggeler, S. W., Pickrel, S. G., and Brondino, M. J., 1999. Multisystemic treatment of substance abusing and dependent delinquents:Outcomes, treatment fidelity, and transportability. Mental Health Services Research, 1:171–184.
29. Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., and Cunningham, P. B., 1998. Multisystemic Treatment of Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents, New York, NY:The Guildford Press.
30. Hogue, A., and Liddle, H. A., 1999. Family-based preventive intervention:An approach to preventing substance use and antisocial behavior. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69(3):278–293.
31. Hogue, A. T., Liddle, H. A., Becker, D., and Johnson-Leckrone, J., 2002. Family-based prevention counseling for high risk young adolescents:Immediate outcomes. Journal of Community Psychology, 30(1):1–22.
32. Huizinga, D., Loeber, R., and Thornberry, T. P., 1994. Urban delinquency and substance abuse:Initial findings, Washington, DC:U.S. Government Printing Office.
33. Joe, G. W., Simpson, D. D., and Broome, K. M., 1998. Effects of readiness for drug abuse treatment on client retention and assessment of process. Addiction, 93(8):1177–1190.
34. Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., and Bachman, J. G., 2002. Demographic subgroup trends for various licit and illicit drugs, 1975–2001, Ann Arbor, MI:Institute for Social Research. (Monitoring the Future Occasional Paper No. 57). Available:http://monitoringthefuture.org
35. Kaminski, R. A., Stormshak, E. A., Good, R. H., and Goodman, M. R., 2002. Prevention of Substance Abuse With Rural Head Start Children and Families:Results of Project STAR. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(Suppl4):S11–S26.
36. Kamoeoka, V. A., 1996. The effects of a family-focused intervention on reducing risk for substance abuse among Asian and Pacific-Island youths and families:Evaluation of the Strengthening Hawaii's Families Project, Honolulu:University of Hawaii, Social Welfare Evaluation and Research Unit.
37. Kumpfer, K. L., 1998. “Selective prevention approaches for drug use prevention:Overview of outcome results from multi-ethnic replications of the Strengthening Families Program”. In Drug Abuse Prevention Through Family Interventions, National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph 177 Edited by:Ashery, R., Kumpfer, K. L., and Robertson, E., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse.
38. Kumpfer, K. L., Alexander, L. B., McDonald, L., and Olds, D. L., 1998. Family-focused substance abuse prevention:What has been learned from other fields, No. Monograph 177 Rockville, MD:National Institute of Drug Abuse.
39. Kumpfer, K. L., and Alvarado, R., 1995. “Strengthening families to prevent drug use in multi-ethnic youth”. In Drug abuse prevention with multi-ethnic youth, Edited by:Botvin, G., Schinke, S., and Orlandi, M., 253–292. Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
40. Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., and Smith, P., 2002. Cultural sensitivity and adaptation in family-based prevention interventions. Prevention Science, 3(3):241–246.
41. Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., and Tait, C., 2002. Effectiveness of school-based family and children's skills training for substance prevention among 6–8-year-old rural children. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(Suppl4):S65–S71.
42. Kumpfer, K. L., DeMarsh, J. P., and Child, W., 1989. Strengthening Families Program:Children's Skills Training Curriculum Manual, Parent Training Manual, Children's Skill Training Manual, and Family Skills Training Manual, Salt Lake City:Social Research Institute, Graduate School of Social Work, University of Utah. (Prevention Services to Children of Substance-Abusing Parents)
43. Kumpfer, K. L., Molgaard, V., and Spoth, R., 1996. “The Strengthening Families Program for prevention of delinquency and drug use in special populations”. In Childhood disorders, substance abuse, and delinquency:Prevention and early intervention approaches, Edited by:DeV Peters, R., and McMahon, R. J., Newbury Park, CA:Sage.
44. Kumpfer, K. L., and Turner, C. W., 1990–1991. The social ecology model of adolescent substance abuse:Implications for prevention. Internal Journal of the Addictions, 25(4-A):435–463.
45. Kumpfer, K. L., Wamberg, K., and Martinez, D., 1996. Strengthening Hispanic Families Program. Paper presented at the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, High Risk Youth Conference. 1996, Washington, DC.
46. Latimer, W. W., Winters, K. C., and D'Zurilla, T., 2003. Integrated Family and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for adolescent substance abusers:A Stage I efficacy study. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 71(3):303–317.
47. Letourneau, E. J., Cunningham, P. B., and Henggeler, S. W., 2002. “Multisystemic treatment of antisocial behavior in adolescents”. In Treating chronic and severe mental disorders:A handbook of empirically supported interventions, Edited by:Hofmann, S. G., and Tompson, M. C., 364–381. New York, NY, US:The Guilford Press.
48. Lewis, R. A., Piercy, F. P., and Sprenkle, D. H., 1990. Family-based interventions for helping drug-abusing adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 5(1):82–95.
49. Liddle, H. A., and Dakof, G. A., 1995. Efficacy of family therapy for drug abuse:Promising but not definitive. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 21(4):511–539.
50. Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Parker, K., Diamond, G. S., Barrett, K., and Tejeda, M., 2001. Multidimensional family therapy for adolescent drug abuse:Results of a randomized clinical trial. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse, 27(4):651–688.
51. Liddle, H. A., Dakof, G. A., Turner, R. M., and Tejeda, M., 2001. Treating adolescent substance abuse:a comparison of individual and family therapy interventions. NIDA Monograph on the 2001 CPDD Conference (paper presented at Adolescent Drug Abuse Treatment Research Symposium ‘A. Morral, & M. Dennis, Chairs’. June2001. CPDD. (in press)
52. Liddle, H. A., and Hogue, A., 2000. A family-based, developmental-ecological preventive intervention for high-risk adolescents. Journal of Marital & Family Therapy, 26(3):265–279.
53. Lonczak, H. S., 2000. An examination of the long-term effects of the Seattle Social Development Project on sexual behavior and related outcomes, and of the consequences of adolescent motherhood. (Washington, early intervention). Sciences, Vol 60(7-A):2371 Dissertation Abstracts International Section A:Humanities & Social
54. Lonczak, H. S., Huang, B., and Catalano, R. F., 2001. The social predictors of adolescent alcohol misuse:A test of the Social Development Model. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62(2):179–189.
55. Lundahl, L. H., Davis, T. M., Adesso, V. J., and Lukas, S. E., 1997. Alcohol expectancies:effects of gender, age, and family history of alcoholism. Addictive Behaviors, 22(1):115–125.
56. Minuchin, S., 1974. Families & family therapy, 268Oxford, England:Harvard University Press.
57. Moncher, M. S., Holden, G. W., and Schinke, S. P., 1990. “Behavioral family treatment of the substance abusing Hispanic adolescent”. In Adolescent behavior therapy handbook, Edited by:Feindler, E. L., and Kalfus, G. R., 329–349. New York, NY:Springer Publishing Co.
58. Newcomb, M. D., 1992. “Understanding the multidimensional nature of drug use and abuse:The role of consumption, risk factors, and protective factors”. In Vulnerability to drug abuse, Edited by:Glantz, M. D., and Pickens, R. W., Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.
59. Newcomb, M. D., and Bentler, P. M., 1989. Substance use and abuse among children and teenagers. American Psychologist, 44:242–248.
60. Nichols, M. P., and Schwartz, R. C., 1995. Family Therapy:Concepts and Methods, Needham Heights, MA:Allyn and Bacon.
61. Oetting, E. R., 1992. Planning programs for prevention of deviant behavior:A psychosocial model. Drugs & Society, 6(3–4):313–344.
62. Paradise, M., Cauce, A. M., Ginzler, J., Wert, S., Wruck, K., and Brooker, M., 2001. “The role of relationships in developmental trajectories of homeless and runaway youth”. In Personal relationships:Implications for clinical and community psychology, Edited by:Sarason, B. R., and Duck, S., New York:John Wiley & Sons.
63. Perrino, T., Gonzalez-Soldevilla, A., Pantin, H., and Szapocznik, J., 2000. The role of familiesin adolescent HIV prevention:A review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(2):81–96.
64. Rahdert, E., and Czechowicz, D., eds. 1995. Adolescent drug abuse:Clinical assessment and therapeutic interventions, NIDA Research Monograph 156 Washington, DC:U.S. Government Printing Office.
65. Randall, J., and Cunningham, P. B., 2003. Multisystemic therapy:A treatment for violent substance-abusing and substance-dependent juvenile offenders. Addictive Behaviors, 28(9):1731–1739.
66. Randall, J., Henggeler, S. W., and Cunningham, P. B., 2001. Adapting multisystemic therapy to treat adolescent substance abuse more effectively. Cognitive & Behavioral Practice, 8(4):359–366.
67. Robbins, M. S., Mitrani, V. B., and Zarate, M., 2002. Change processesin family therapy with Hispanic adolescents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 24(4):505–519.
68. Robbins, M. S., Szapocznik, J., and Santisteban, D. A., 2003. “Brief strategic family therapy for Hispanic youth”. In Yale University School of Medicine, Child Study Center. Evidence-based psychotherapies for children and adolescents, Edited by:Kazdin, A. E., 407–424. New York, NY:The Guilford Press.
69. Rowe, C., Liddle, H. A., and McClintic, K., 2002. “Integrative treatment development:Multidimensional family therapy for adolescent substance abuse”. In Comprehensive handbook of psychotherapy:Integrative/eclectic, Edited by:Kaslow, F. W., 133–161. New York, NY:John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
70. Santisteban, D. A., Coatsworth, J. D., and Perez-Vidal, A., 2003. Efficacy of brief strategic family therapy in modifying Hispanic adolescent behavior problems and substance use. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(1):121–133.
71. Santisteban, D. A., Szapocznik, J., Perez-Vidal, A., Kurtines, W. M., Coatsworth, J. D., and LaPerriere, A., 2000. The efficacy of brief strategic/structural family therapy in modifying behavior problems and an exploration of the role that family functioning plays in behavior change, University of Miami, Center for Family Studies. Manuscript in preparation
72. Santisteban, D. A., Szapocznik, J., Perez-Vidal, A., Kurtines, W. M., Murray, E. J., and LaPerriere, A., 1996. Efficacy of intervention for engaging youth and families into treatment and some variables that may contribute to differential effectiveness. Journal of Family Psychology, 10:35–44.
73. Schoenwald, S. K., Halliday-Boykins, C. A., and Henggeler, S. W., 2003. Client-level predictors of adherence to MST in community service settings. Family Process, 42(3):345–359.
74. Schoenwald, S. K., Ward, D. M., and Henggeler, S. W., 1996. Multisystemic therapy treatment of substance abusing or dependent adolescent offenders:Costs of reducing incarceration, inpatient, and residential placement. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 5(4):431–444.
75. Sheidow, A. J., and Woodford, M. S., 2003. Multisystemic therapy:An empirically supported, home-based family therapy approach. Family Journal-Counseling & Therapy for Couples & Families, 11(3):257–263.
76. Simpson, D. D., 2001. Modeling treatment process and outcomes. Addiction, 96(2):207–211.
77. Simpson, D. D., Joe, G. W., and Brown, B. S., 1997. Treatment retention and follow-up outcomes in the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study (DATOS). Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11(4):294–307.
78. Simpson, D. D., Joe, G. W., Rowan-Szal, G., and Greener, J., 1995. Client engagement and change during drug abuse treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse, 7(1):117–134.
79. Soo-Hoo, T., 1999. Brief strategic family therapy with Chinese Americans. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(2):163–179.
80. Spoth, R., 1998. Results From Iowa Strengthening Families Program for Drug Use. Paper presented to the Society for Prevention Research Annual Conference. 1998, Baltimore, MD.
81. Spoth, R., Guyll, M., and Chao, W., 2003. Exploratory Study of a Preventive Intervention with General Population African American Families. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23(4):435–468.
82. Spoth, R. L., Guyll, M., and Day, S. X., 2002. Universal family-focused interventions in alcohol-use disorder prevention:Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses of two interventions. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63(2):219–228.
83. Spoth, R., Redmond, C., and Lepper, H., 1999. Alcohol initiation outcomes of universal family-focused preventive interventions:One-and two-year follow-ups of a controlled study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 13:103–111. supp
84. Spoth, R., Redmond, C., and Shin, C., 1998. Direct and indirect latent-variable parenting outcomes of two universal family-focused preventive interventions:Extending a public health-oriented research base. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 66(2):385–399.
85. Spoth, R. L., Redmond, C., and Shin, C., 2001. Randomized trial of brief family interventions for general populations:Adolescent substance use outcomes 4 years following baseline. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 69(4):627–642.
86. Spoth, R. L., Redmond, C., and Trudeau, L., 2002. Longitudinal substance initiation outcomes for a universal preventive intervention combining family and school programs. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16(2):129–134.
87. Spoth, R., Reyes, M. L., and Redmond, C., 1999. Assessing a public health approach to delay onset and progression of adolescent substance use:Latent transition and log-linear analyses of longitudinal family preventive intervention outcomes. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 67(5):619–630.
88. Stanton, M. D., and Shadish, W. R., 1997. Outcomes, attrition, and family-couple treatment for drug abuse:A meta-analysis and review of the controlled, comparative studies. Psychological Bulletin, 122:170–191.
89. Szapocznik, J., Hervis, O., and Schwartz, S., 2001. Brief Strategic Family Therapy Manual ‘NIDA Treatment Manual Series’, Rockvill, MD:National Institute on Drug Abuse.
90. Szapocznik, J., and Kurtines, W. M., 1989. Breakthroughs in family therapy with drug abusing problem youth, New York:Springer.
91. Szapocznik, J., and Kurtines, W., 1990. Interplay of advances between theory, research, and application in treatment interventions aimed at behavior problem children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 58(6):696–703.
92. Szapocznik, J., Kurtines, W. M., Foote, F., Perez-Vidal, A., and Hervis, O. E., 1983. Conjoint versus one-person family therapy:Some evidence for the effectiveness of conducting family therapy through one person with drug-abusing adolescents. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 51:889–899.
93. Szapocznik, J., Kurtines, W. M., Foote, F., Perez-Vidal, A., and Hervis, O. E., 1986. Conjoint versus one-person family therapy:Further evidence for the effectiveness of conducting family therapy through one person with drug-abusing adolescents. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 54(3):395–397.
94. Szapocznik, J., Perez-Vidal, A., Brickman, A., Foote, F. H., Santisteban, D., Hervis, O. E., and Kurtines, W. M., 1988. Engaging adolescent drug abusers and their families into treatment:A strategic structural systems approach. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 56:552–557.
95. Szapocznik, J., Perez-Vidal, A., Hervis, O. E., Brickman, A. E., and Kurtines, W. M., 1989. “Innovations in family therapy:Strategies for overcoming resistance to treatment”. In Handbook of brief psychotherapies, Edited by:Wells, R. A., and Giannetti, V. J., 93–114. New York:Plenum Press.
96. Szapocznik, J., Rio, A., and Murray, E., 1989. Structural family versus psychodynamic child therapy for problematic Hispanic boys. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 57(5):571–578.
97. Szapocznik, J., Santisteban, D., Rio, A., Perez Vidal, A., and Kurtines, W. M., 1986. “Family effectiveness training for Hispanic families:Strategic structural systems intervention for the prevention of drug abuse”. In Cross cultural training for mental health professionals, Edited by:Lefley, H. P., and Pedersen, P. B., 245–261. Springfield, IL:Charles C Thomas.
98. Szapocznik, J., Santisteban, D., Rio, A., Perez Vidal, A., Kurtines, W. M., and Hervis, O. E., 1986. Bicultural effectiveness training (BET):An intervention modality for families experiencing intergenerational/intercultural conflict. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 6:303–330.
99. Szapocznik, J., and Williams, R. A., 2000. Brief Strategic Family Therapy:Twenty-five years of interplay among theory, research and practice in adolescent behavior problems and drug abuse. Clinical Child & Family Psychological Review, 3(2):117–134.
100. Trepper, T. S., Piercy, F. P., and Lewis, R. A., 1993. “Family therapy for adolescent alcohol abuse”. In Treating alcohol problems:Marital and family interventions, Edited by:O'Farrell, T. J., 261–278. New York, NY, US:Guilford Press.
101. Waldron, H. B., Slesnick, N., and Brody, J. L., 2001. Treatment outcomes for adolescent substance abuse at 4-and 7-month assessments. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 69(5):802–813.
102. Whisman, M. A., 1990. The efficacy of booster maintenance sessions in behavior therapy:Review and methodological critique. Clinical Psychology Review, 10:155–170.
103. Wills, T. A.V., and McNamara, D G., 1992. The role of life events, family support, and competence in adolescent substance use:A test of vulnerability and protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20(3):349–374.
104. Winters, K. C., 1999. Treatment of adolescents with substance use disorders, SMA 99–3283 Rockville, MD:Center for Substance Abuse Treatment.