American Indians in the news: A media portrayal in crime articles

American Indian Culture and Research Journal

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 21-37

  Freng, Adrienne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34248580901     PISSN: 01616463     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.17953/aicr.31.1.y3r2n48611025346     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. James Garofalo, "Crime and the Mass Media: A Selective Review of Research," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (1981): 319-50.
2. Maurice Vergeer, Marcel Lubbers, and Peer Scheepers, "Exposure to Newspapers and Attitudes toward Ethnic Minorities: A Longitudinal Analysis," The Howard Journal of Communications (2000): 127-43.
3. F. James Davis, "Crime News in Colorado Newspapers," American Journal of Sociology LVIII (1952): 325-30;
4. Jason Ditton and James Duffy, "Bias in the Newspaper Reporting of Crime News," British Journal of Criminology (1983): 159-65;
5. Garofalo, "Crime and the Mass Media," 319-50; Drew Humphries, "Serious Crime, News Coverage, and Ideology," Crime and Delinquency (1981): 191-205;
6. Harry Marsh, "A Comparative Analysis of Crime Coverage in Newspapers in the United States and Other Counties from 1960-1989: A Review of the Literature," Journal of Criminal Justice (1991): 67-79;
7. Julian Roberts and Don Edwards, "Contextual Effects in Judgments of Crimes, Criminals, and the Purposes of Sentencing," Journal of Applied Social Psychology (1989): 902-17;
8. Susan Smith, "Crime in the News," British Journal of Criminology (1984): 289-95.
9. Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, and Robin M. Akert, Social Psychology (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005);
10. Susan Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," in The Handbook of Social Psychology, eds. Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998), 357-412;
11. Susan Fiske, Monica Lin, and Steven Neuberg, "The Continuum Model: Ten Years Later," in Dual-process Theories in Social Psychology, ed. Shelly Chaiken (New York: Guilford Press, 1999), 231-54;
12. Susan Fiske and Shelly E. Taylor, Social Cognition (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1984);
13. George Gerbner, "Toward 'Cultural Indicators': The Analysis of Mass Mediated Public Message System," in The Analysis of Communication Content, eds. George Gerbner, Ole Holsti, Klaus Krippendorff, William Paisley, and Philip Stone (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1969), 123-32;
14. David L. Hamilton, "Illusory Correlation as a Basis for Stereotyping," in Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior, ed. David L. Hamilton (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1981), 115-44;
15. David Hamilton and Tina Trolier, "Stereotypes and Stereotyping: An Overview of the Cognitive Approach," in Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism, eds. John F. Dovidio and Samuel Garertner (New York: Academic Press, 1986), 127-64;
16. Leslie Zebrowitz McArthur and Susan A. Friedman, "Illusory Correlation in Impression Formation: Variations in the Shared Distinctiveness Effect as a Function of the Distinctive Person's Age, Race, and Sex," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1980): 615-24;
17. Sharon Shavitt, David M. Sanbonmatsu, Sasiwimon Smittipatana, and Steven S. Posavac, "Broadening the Conditions for Illusory Correlation Formation: Implications for Judging Minority Groups," Basic and Applied Social Psychology (1999): 263-79;
18. Vergeer, Lubbers, and Scheepers, "Exposure to Newspapers," 127-43;
19. Frans Willem Winkel, "Crime Reporting in Newspapers: An Exploratory Study of the Effects of Ethnic References in Crime News," Social Behaviour (1990): 87-101.
20. Hubert Blalock Jr., Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967);
21. Davis, "Crime News in Colorado Newspapers," 325-30;
22. Ditton and Duffy, "Bias in Newspaper Reporting," 159-65;
23. Garofalo, "Crime and the Mass Media," 319-50;
24. Marc Grenier, "Native Indians in the English-Canadian Press: The Case of the 'Oka Crisis," Media, Culture & Society (1994): 313-36;
25. Smith, "Crime in the News," 289-95;
26. Joseph E. Trimble, "Stereotypical Images, American Indians, and Prejudice," in Eliminating Racism, ed. Phyllis A. Katz and Dalmas A. Taylor (New York: Plenum Press, 1988), 181-202.
27. See, e.g., Angela Aleiss, "Hollywood Addresses Postwar Assimilation: Indian/White Attitudes in Broken Arrow," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (1987): 67-79;
28. Barrie Bunter, "Ethnicity and Involvement in Violence on Television: Nature and Context of On-Screen Portrayals," Journal of Black Studies (1998): 683-703;
29. Steven Leuthold, "Native American Responses to the Western," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (1995): 153-89;
30. Dana Mastro and Amanda Robinson, "Cops and Crooks: Images of Minorities on Primetime Television, "Journal of Criminal Justice (2000): 385-96;
31. Daniel Romer, Kathleen Jamieson, and Nicole DeCoteau, "The Treatment of Persons of Color in Local Television News: Ethnic Blame Discourse or Realistic Group Conflict," Communication Research (1998): 286-305;
32. Charles S. Ungerleider, "Media, Minorities, and Misconceptions: The Portrayal by and Representation of Minorities in Canadian News Media," Canadian Ethnic Studies (1991): 158-64;
33. Winkel, "Crime Reporting in Newspapers," 87-101.
34. Ungerleider, "Media, Minorities, and Misconceptions," 158-64; Vergeer, Lubbers, and Scheepers, "Exposure to Newspapers," 127-43; Winkel, "Crime Reporting in Newspapers," 87-101.
35. Robert A. Silverman, "Patterns of Native American Crime," in Native Americans, Crime, and Justice, eds. Marianne O. Nielson and Robert A. Silverman (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 58-74;
36. US Bureau of Justice Statistics, American Indians and Crime, A BJS Statistical Profile, 1992-2002 (Washington, DC, 1999).
37. American Indians and Crime, 1999;
38. Ronet Bachman, "An Analysis of American Indian Homicide: A Test of Social Disorganization and Economic Deprivation at the Reservation County Level," Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 28 (1991): 456-71.
39. American Indians and Crime, viii.
40. Donald E. Green, "The Contextual Nature of American Indian Criminality," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (1993): 99-119;
41. "GRB SDCJ Preliminary Report," http://www.state.sd.us/governor/ sdcjreport/arresttotrial.htm (accessed 26 July 2006);
42. "Native Americans in South Dakota: An Erosion of Confidence in the Justice System," http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/sac/sd0300/main.htm (accessed 26 July 2006);
43. Marianne O. Nielsen, "Contextualization for Native American Crime and Criminal Justice Involvement," in Native Americans, Crime, and Justice, eds. Marianne O. Nielson and Robert A. Silverman (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 10-19;
44. "Report Documents Disparities in S.D. Justice," http://www.indianz.com/News/show.asp?ID=2002/10/28/race (accessed 26 July 2006); "South Dakota Equal Justice Commission," http://www.sdjudicial.com/ downloads/SDEJCFinalReport2006jan.pdf (accessed 26 July 2006).
45. Joe R. Feagin and Clairece Booher Feagin, Racial and Ethnic Relations, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003);
46. Alvin Josephy, Now That the Buffalo's Gone (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982);
47. Rex Weyler, Blood of the Land (New York: Everest House, 1982).
48. Coramae Richey Mann and Marjorie S. Zatz, eds., Images of Color, Images of Crime, (Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing, 1998);
49. Mastro and Robinson, "Cops and Crooks," 385-96;
50. Devon Mihesuah, American Indians: Stereotypes and Realities (Canada: Clarity International Press, 1996);
51. James Riding In, "American Indians in Popular Culture: A Pawnee's Experiences and Views," in Images of Color, Images of Crime, eds. Coramae Richey Mann and Marjorie S. Zatz (Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing, 1998), 15-29;
52. Trimble, "Stereotypical Images," 181-202.
53. Mihesuah, American Indians, 1996;
54. Riding In, "American Indians in Popular Culture," 15-29;
55. Trimble, "Stereotypical Images," 181-202.
56. Mann and Zatz, Images of Color, Images of Crime,
57. Mihesuah, American Indians;
58. Riding In, "American Indians in Popular Culture," 15-29;
59. Trimble, "Stereotypical Images," 181-202;
60. Cynthia Willis Esqueda and Kristin Swanson, "The Influence of Alcohol Use and Crime Stereotypicality on Culpability Assignment for Native Americans and European Americans," American Indian Culture and Research Journal (1997): 229-54.
61. Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," 357-412;
62. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
63. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition;
64. Hamilton and Trolier, "Stereotypes and Stereotyping," 127-64.
65. Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," 357-412;
66. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
67. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition;
68. Hamilton and Trolier, "Stereotypes and Stereotyping," 127-64.
69. Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," 357-412;
70. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
71. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition;
72. Hamilton and Trolier, "Stereotypes and Stereotyping," 127-64.
73. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
74. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, 160.
75. Aronson, Wilson, and Akert, Social Psychology;
76. Hamilton, "Illusory Correlation," 115-44;
77. McArthur and Friedman, "Illusory Correlation in Impression Formation," 615-24;
78. Shavitt et al., "Broadening the Conditions," 263-79.
79. Aronson, Wilson, and Akert, Social Psychology.
80. Hamilton, "Illusory Correlation," 115-44.
81. Gerbner, "Toward 'Cultural Indicators'."
82. Ibid., 123.
83. Vergeer, Lubbers, and Scheepers, "Exposure to Newspapers," 127-43.
84. Ibid.
85. Mann and Zatz, Images of Color, Images of Crime, Vergeer, Lubbers, and Scheepers, "Exposure to Newspapers," 127-43.
86. Willis Esqueda and Swanson, "The Influence of Alcohol Use," 232.
87. Winkel, "Crime Reporting in Newspapers," 87-101.
88. Ungerleider, "Media, Minorities, and Misconceptions," 158-64.
89. Ibid.
90. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid., 169.
93. Davis, "Crime News in Colorado Newspapers," 325-30;
94. Ditton and Duffy, "Bias in Newspaper Reporting," 159-65;
95. Garofalo, "Crime and the Mass Media," 319-50;
96. Humphries, "Serious Crime, News Coverage, and Ideology," 191-205;
97. Roberts and Edwards, "Contextual Effects," 902-17;
98. Smith, "Crime in the News," 289-95.
99. Trimble, "Stereotypical Images," 181-202.
100. See, e.g., Rolland Dewing, Wounded Knee: The Meaning and Significance, of the Second Incident (New York: Irvington Publishers, 1985);
101. Alvin Josephy, Now That the Buffalo's Gone.
102. Trimble, "Stereotypical Images," 181-202.
103. Grenier, "Native Indians in English-Canadian Press," 313-36.
104. Ibid.
105. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations.
106. US Census Bureau, US Census-General Population Characteristics for the State of South Dakota (Washington, DC, 2000); US Census, 2000.
107. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations.
108. Elizabeth Grobsmith, Indians in Prison (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994);
109. South Dakota Department of Corrections, http://www.state.sd.us\ corrections\adult_stats.htm (accessed 24 January 2005).
110. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations.
111. Feagin and Feagin, Racial and Ethnic Relations;
112. Josephy, Now That the Buffalo's Goner, Weyler, Blood of the Land.
113. Josephy, Now that the Buffalo's Gone;
114. Weyler, Blood of the Land.
115. Ibid.
116. US Census Bureau, U.S. Census-General Population.
117. Ibid.
118. US Census, 2000.
119. Ibid.
120. Blalock, Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations.
121. The practice of identifying juveniles in crime-related news has changed over time. During the 1960s, it was common to identify juveniles by name. However, due to changes in the law regarding juveniles, they were afforded confidentiality during the other two time periods.
122. Stephen E. Brown, Finn Aage Esbensen, and Gilbert Geis, Criminology: Explaining Crime and Its Content (Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co., 1996).
123. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2005 (Washington, DC, 2005).
124. Part II offenses include simple assault, forgery and counterfeiting, fraud, embezzlement, stolen property (buying, receiving or possessing), vandalism, carrying or possessing weapons, prostitution and commercialized vice, sex offenses, drug abuse violations, gambling, offenses against the family and children, driving under the influence, liquor laws, drunkenness, disorderly conduct, vagrancy, all other offenses except traffic and suspicion. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2005, Washington, DC.
125. Ditton and Duffy, "Bias in Newspaper Reporting," 159-65;
126. Garofalo, "Crime and the Mass Media," 319-50;
127. Humphries, "Serious Crime, News Coverage, and Ideology," 191-205;
128. Marsh, "A Comparative Analysis of Crime Coverage," 67-79;
129. Roberts and Edwards, "Contextual Effects," 902-17.
130. Because the article was the unit of analysis, including articles with multiple perpetrators and crime results in coding issues, such as which racial category to place the article if the perpetrators were of two different racial/ethnic backgrounds. Additionally, because the article can only count once, if multiple perpetrators/crimes existed, you would have to select which crime and perpetrator would represent that specific article. To avoid these confounds, these types of articles were eliminated from the analysis.
131. Galen Bodenhausen, "Stereotypie Biases in Social Decision Making and Memory: Testing Process Models of Stereotype Use," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1988): 726-37;
132. Galen Bodenhausen and Robert S. Wyer, "Effects of Stereotypes in Decision Making and Information-Processing Strategies," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1985): 267-82;
133. Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," 357-412;
134. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
135. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
136. Bodenhausen, "Stereotypie Biases," 726-37;
137. Bodenhausen and Wyer, "Effects of Stereotypes," 267-82;
138. Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," 357-412;
139. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
140. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition. Examples include Grover Horned Antelope and Willard Bores a Hole and references such as Lakota Sioux Religious Leader and reference to American Indian Housing areas such as Lakota Homes. Although pictures and other cues were used, names were the most common identifier.
141. Although chi-square analyses were utilized to access differences for all of the research questions, nonparametric chi-squared tests were utilized to test hypothesis two. This was necessary because the research articles represented a sample, while the arrests represented a population.
142. The arrests statistics for 1960, 1961, 1973, and 1974 were obtained directly from the FBI files acquired from law enforcement in South Dakota. The arrest statistics for 1990 and 1991 were published in Crime in South Dakota, provided by the Statistical Analysis Center for the state of South Dakota, and based on arrests reported by law enforcement to the FBI; thus it was utilized for this time period. Although the arrest rates were collected from different sources, the statistics are based on the same data: law enforcement arrest statistics reported to the FBI for the UCR. Because the arrest statistics were not published by race/ethnicity (to the author's knowledge) in the 1960s and 1970s, the information was acquired directly from the FBI.
143. Davis, "Crime News in Colorado Newspapers," 325-30;
144. Ditton and Duffy, "Bias in Newspaper Reporting," 159-65;
145. Garofalo, "Crime and the Mass Media," 319-50;
146. Smith, "Crime in the News," 289-95.
147. Thank you to the anonymous reviewers for suggesting this solution.
148. South Dakota Department of Corrections, http://www.state.sd.us/ corrections/adult_stats.htm (accessed 24 January 2005).
149. Federal Bureau of Investigation (Washington, DC, 2002). According to the Federal Justice Statistics Resource Center and the US Marshals Office, information on federal arrests by race/ethnicity for these years was unavailable, thus UCR data was utilized.
150. Zoann Snyder-Joy, "Self-Determination and American Indian Justice: Tribal Versus Federal Jurisdiction on Indian Lands," in Native Americans, Crime, and Justice, eds. Marianne Nielsen and Robert Siverman (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), 38-45.
151. Larry Siegel, Criminology (Belmont, CA: Thomson-Wadsworth, 2006).
152. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
153. Bodenhausen, "Stereotypie Biases," 726-37;
154. Bodenhausen and Wyer, "Effects of Stereotypes," 267-82;
155. Fiske, "Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination," 357-412;
156. Fiske, Lin, and Neuberg, "The Continuum Model," 231-54;
157. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition.
158. Feagin and Feagin, Racial and Ethnic Relations:, "GRB SDCJ Preliminary Report";
159. Josephy, Now That the Buffalo's Gone, "Native Americans in South Dakota: An Erosion of Confidence in the Justice System";
160. "Report Documents Disparities in S.D. Justice"; "South Dakota Equal Justice Commission"; Weyler, Blood of the Land.
161. Ungerleider, "Media, Minorities, and Misconceptions," 160.