Social activism in an age of consumption: The organized consumer movement

Social History

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 121-143

  Hilton, Matthew ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34248506575     PISSN: 03071022     EISSN: 14701200     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03071020701245751     Document Type: Article

References (254)

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17. See also Hoggart's disillusionment with the cultural studies project that he himself had done so much to initiate: R. Hoggart, The Way We Live Now (London, 1995).
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20. Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000 (Oxford, 2002), vii.
21. ibid., 460.
22. See, for instance, the works on the US by Robert N. Mayer, The Consumer Movement: Guardians of the Marketplace (Boston, 1989).
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38. Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labour Movement, 1919-1929 (Cambridge, 1994).
39. Landon R. Y. Storrs, Civilizing Capitalism: The National Consumers' League, Women's Activism, and Labor Standards in the New Deal Era (Chapel Hill, 2000). More recent work has sought to extend this period earlier, as far as the American Revolution
40. T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (Oxford, 2004).
41. Lawrence B. Glickman, '"Through the medium of their pockets": Sabbatarianism, free produce, non intercourse and the significance of "early modern" consumer activism' in Alain Chatriot, Marie-Emmanuelle Chessel and Matthew Hilton (eds), The Expert Consumer: Associations and Professionals in Consumer Society (Aldershot, 2006), 22-35.
42. E. Furlough and C. Strikwerda (eds), Consumers Against Capitalism? Consumer Cooperation in Europe, North America and Japan, 1840-1990 (Oxford, 1999).
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44. Tracey Deutsch, 'Des consommatrices américaines très engages, de New Deal à la guerre froide' in Alain Chatriot, Marie-Emmanuelle Chessel and Matthew Hilton (eds), Au nom du consommateur: La consommation entre mobilisation sociale et politique publique dans les pays occidentaux au XX sie'cle (Paris, 2004), 361-75.
45. Annelise Orleck, '"We are the Mythical Thing Called the Public"': consumer organizing in the Great Depression', Feminist Studies, XIX (1993), 147-72.
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47. Meg Jacobs, Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, 2005).
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51. Victoria de Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America's Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA, 2005).
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53. G. Cross, An All-Consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America(New York), 135.
54. Mayer, op. cit.
55. Silber, op. cit.;
56. Pertschuk, op. cit.;
57. C. McGovern, 'Consumption and citizenship in the United States, 1900-1940' in Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern and Matthias Judt (eds), Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Societies in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1998), 37-58.
58. Charles McGovern, 'Sold American: Inventing the Consumer, 1890-1940' (Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, 1993).
59. L. Glickman, 'The strike in the temple of consumption: Consumer activism and tewentieth century American political culture', Journal of American History, LXXXVIII, 1 (2001), 99-128.
60. Robert N. Mayer, 'The entrepreneurial ethic and the spirit of consumerism: Finances and strategy in the US consumer movement' in Chatriot, Chessel and Hilton (eds), The Expert Consumer, op. cit., 151-66.
61. L. Bihl, Consommateur: Défends-toi! (Paris, Denoël, 1976).
62. A. Morin, 'French consumer movement' in S. Brobeck, R. N. Mayer and R. O. Herrmann (eds), Encyclopaedia of the Consumer Movement (Santa Barbara, 1997), 279-83.
63. Alain Chatriot, 'Consumers' associations and the state: Protection and defence of the consumer in France, 1950-2000' in Chatriot, Chessel and Hilton (eds), The Expert Consumer, op. cit., 123-36.
64. Gunnar Trumbull, 'Strategies of consumer group mobilization: France and Germany in the 1970s' in Martin Daunton and Matthew Hilton (eds), The Politics of Consumption: Material Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America (Oxford, 2001), 261-82.
65. Gunnar Trumbull, Consumer Capitalism: Politics, Product Markets and Firm Strategy in France and Germany (Ithaca, 2006).
66. Consumers International, Balancing the Scales, Part 2: Consumer Protection in the Netherlands and Germany (London, 1995).
67. E. Kuhlmann, 'German consumer movement' in Brobeck et al., op. cit, 289-93.
68. Joop Koopman, 'Dutch consumer movement' in Brobeck et al., op. cit, 27-32.
69. Consumers International, Balancing the Scales, op. cit.
70. Matthew Hilton, Consumerism in Twentieth-Century Britain: The Search for a Historical Movement (Cambridge, 2003).
71. Lawrence Black, 'Which? craft in post-war Britain: The Consumers' Association and the politics of affluence', Albion, XXXVI, 1 (2004), 52-82.
72. G. Smith, The Consumer Interest (London, 1982).
73. T. Bourgoignie and A-C. Lacoste, 'Belgian consumer movement' in Brobeck et al., op. cit., 61-4.
74. Karl Gerth, China Made: Consumer Culture and the Creation of the Nation (Cambridge, MA, 2003).
75. Michael Edson Robinson, Cultural Nationalism in Colonial Korea, 1920-1925 (Seattle, 1988).
76. Laura C. Nelson, Status, Gender and Consumer Nationalism in South Korea (New York, 2000).
77. C. A. Bayly, 'The origins of swadeshi (home industry): Cloth and Indian society, 1700-1930' in Arjun Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, 1986).
78. Lisa N. 'Trivedi, 'Visually mapping the "nation": Swadeshi politics in nationalist India, 1920-1930', Journal of Asian Studies, LXII, 1 (2003), 11-41
79. Manu Goswami, 'From swadeshi to swaraj: Nation, economy, territory in colonial South Asia, 1870 to 1907', Comparative Studies in Society and History, XL, 4 (1998), 609-36.
80. Jane Brown, A History of the Australian Consumer Movement (Braddon, ACT, 1996)
81. David Halpin, Consumers' Choice: 25 Years of the Australian Consumers' Association (Marrickville, NSW, 1984)
82. David Russell, 'New Zealand consumer movement' in Brobeck et al., op. cit., 411-14
83. Patricia L. Maclachlan, Consumer Politics in Postwar Japan: The Institutional Boundaries of Citizen Activism (New York, 2002)
84. Steven K. Vogel, 'When interests are not preferences: The cautionary tale of Japanese consumers', Comparative Politics, XXXI, 2 (1999), 187-207
85. David Vogel, 'Consumer protection and protectionism in Japan', Journal of Japanese Studies, XVIII, 1 (1992), 119-54
86. Maki Shohei, 'The postwar consumer movement: Its emergence from a movement of women', Japan Quarterly, XXIII (1976), 135-9
87. Gurjeet Singh, 'Indian consumer movement' in Brobeck et al., op. cit, 312-16.
88. Josie Fernandez, 'Consumer protection in Asia: The challenges ahead', Journal of Development Communication, XII, 1 (2001), 42-52
89. Josie Fernandez, 'Asian-Pacific Consumer Movement' in Brobeck et al., op. cit., 38-42
90. John T. D. Wood, 'Consumer protection in the Asian-Pacific region', Journal of Consumer Policy, XIV (1991), 99-106.
91. Foo Gaik Sim, IOCU on Record: A Documentary History of the International Organization of Consumers Unions, 1960-1990 (New York, 1991).
92. IOCU, Knowledge is Power: Consumer Goals in the 1970s. Proceedings of the 6th Biennial World Conference of the International Organization of Consumers Unions (London, 1970), 115-17.
93. IOCU, Consumer Power in the Nineties: Proceedings of the Thirteenth IOCU World Congress (London, 1991), 113
94. Consumers International, Annual Report, 1999 (London, 1999), 37-41.
95. Consumers International, Annual Report 2004 (London, 2005).
96. IOCU, Consumers on the March: Proceedings of the 3rd Biennial Conference of the IOCU (The Hague, 1964), 6.
97. Sim, op. cit., 60-1
98. IOCU, Community Education for Consumer Protection: Proceedings of a Seminar for Asia and the Pacific (The Hague, 1974)
99. International Consumer, XIV, 4 (1973/4), 9-14
100. Consumers International Archive, Kuala Lumpur, Box 130: Regional Programme Office: Regional Office for the Asia Pacific (ROAP): File I1: Seminar on consumer education for consumer protection, February 1974, Singapore; File 12: Establishment of IOCU-ROAP (various papers).
101. Interview with Bishan Singh, 27 November 2003; interview with Josie Fernandez, 8 December 2003; interview with Foo Gaik Sim, 4 December 2003; 99 Consumers International Archive, Box 61a: Personalities: File G5b: Anwar Fazal: 'Champion of consumers' cause', The Indian Express 16 December 1974
102. 'Malaysian consumerist heads international body', Malaysian Business September 1978'
103. Activists: Workers and consumers fight back', Multinational Monitor January 1983, 13.
104. For the Right Livelihood Awards, see website: http://www.rightlivelihood.org; Paul Ekins, New World Order: Grassroots Movements for Global Change (London, 1992)
105. Jeremy Seabrook, Pioneers Change: Experiments in Creating a New Society London, 1993)
106. Tom Woodhouse (ed.), People and Planet: The Right Livelihood Award Speeches (London, 1987).
107. Roger A. Brooks, Multinationals: First Victim of the UN War on Free Enterprise (Washington, DC, 1982), 21.
108. For information on the Heritage Foundation see Lee Edwards, The Power of Ideas: The Heritage Foundation at 25 Years (Ottawa, IL, 1997).
109. R. Carson, Silent Spring (1962; Harmondsworth, 1999)
110. Cicely Williams, Milk and Murder: Address to the Rotary Club of Singapore in 1939 (Penang, 1986).
111. The notion of networks was certainly referred to at the time, although the role of non-state actors was downplayed: Harold K. Jacobson, Networks of Interdependence: International Organizations and the Global Political System (2nd edn, New York, 1984).
112. G. Goldenman and S. Rengam, Problem Pesticides, Pesticide Problems: A Citizens' Action Guide to the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides (Penang, 1988)
113. K. Balasubramaniam, Health and Pharmaceuticals in Developing Countries: Towards Social Justice and Equity (Penang, 1996)
114. Foo Gaik Sim, The Pesticide Poisoning Report: A Survey of Some Asian Countries (Penang, IOCU-ROAP, 1985)
115. Michael Hansen, Escape from the Pesticide Treadmill: Alternatives to Pesticides in Developing Countries (Penang, 1987)
116. IOCU and IBFAN, Protecting Infant Health: A Health Workers' Guide to the International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes (Penang, 1985)
117. IBFAN, Breaking the Rules 1991: A Worldwide Report on Violations of the WHO/UNICEF International Code of Marketing of Breastmilk Substitutes Penang, 1991)
118. Charles Medawar, Drugs and World Health: An International Consumer Perspective (London, 1984).
119. Jacobson, op. cit., 411-13
120. John Clark (ed.), Globalizing Civic Engagement: Civil Society and Transnational Action (London, 2003)
121. Global Policy Forum, NGOs and the United Nations: Comments for the Report of the Secretary General (Global Policy Forum, 1999)
122. John Keane, Global Civil Society? Cambridge, 2003)
123. Ann C. Hudock, NGOs and Civil Society: Democracy by Proxy? (Cambridge, 1999)
124. John Clark, Worlds Apart: Civil Society and the Battle for Ethical Globalization (London, 2003).
125. Katherine Gillman, The Consumer Interpol: A Report to IOCU (The Hague, 1981)
126. IOCU, The Food Crisis (The Hague, 1978)
127. CI, Food Security: The New Millennium (Penang, 1999)
128. CI and United Nations Environment Programme UNEP), Tracking Progress: Implementing Sustainable Consumption Policies: A Global Review of Implementation of the United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection (Section G: Promotion of Sustainable Consumption) (London and Paris, 2002).
129. I explore these issues in greater depth in M. Hilton, 'From the Cold War to globalization: The United Nations Guidelines on Consumer Protection' in Ruth Oldenziel and Karin Zachmann (eds), The Cold War Kitchen (Cambridge, MA, forthcoming).
130. United Nations Commission on Transnational Corporations, The United Nations Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations (The Hague, 1988).
131. CI Achive Box 102: Programmes and Campaigns: UN TNC Code of Conduct: H88.2: Letter from James Firebrace to Allan Asher, 14 January 1991; H88.6: Telex from US State Department to US Embassies, 26 March 1991; H88.21: Rhoda H. Karpatkin and Esther Peterson, 'State department organizes disinformation campaign in US embassies on UN consumer issues', 29 June 1991
132. CI Archive Box 104: Programmes and Campaigns: UN TNC Code of Conduct: H90.11: Allan Asher and Elizabeth Hayes, 'Meeting report of the 19th session of the UN Commission on TNCs', 5-15 April 1993.
133. John Keane, op. cit.
134. Clark, Worlds Apart, op. cit.
135. Peter Willets (ed.), 'The Conscience of the World': The Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations in the UN System (London, 1996)
136. Marjorie Mayo, Global Citizens: Social Movements and the Challenge of Globalization (London, 2005)
137. Daphné Josselim and William Wallace (eds), Non-State Actors in World Politics (London, 2001).
138. Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Ian Willem Dyvendak and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis (Minneapolis, 1995)
139. Enrique Laraña, Hank Johnston and Joseph R. Gusfield (eds), New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity (Philadelphia, 1994)
140. David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule and Hanspeter Kriesi (eds), The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (Oxford, 2004)
141. Donatella della Porta and Mario Diani, Social Movements: An Introduction (Oxford, 1999)
142. David S. Meyer and Sidney Tarrow (eds), The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century (Lanham, Maryland, 1998)
143. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald (eds), Comparative Perspective on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge, 1996)
144. Sidney Tarrow (ed.), Power in Movement: Social Movement and Contentious Politics (Cambridge, 1998).
145. Simon Lazarus, The Genteel Populists (New York, 1974)
146. Robert D. Holsworth, Public Interest Liberalism and the Crisis of Affluence: Reflections on Nader, Environmentalism, and the Politics of a Sustainable Society (Cambridge, MA, 1980).
147. Philip Larkin, Collected Poems (London, 2003), 147.
148. D. Caplowitz, The Poor Pay More: Consumer Practices of Low-Income Families (New York, 1963).
149. This book was influential on other consumer movements: F. Williams (ed.), Why the Poor Pay More (London, 1977)
150. D. Piachaud, Do the Poor Pay More? (London, 1974).
151. Patrick J. Ackard, 'Corporate mobilization and political power: The transformation of US economic policy in the 1970s', American Sociological Review, LVII, 5 (1992), 597-615
152. David Vogel, 'The power of business in America: A reappraisal', British Journal of Political Science, XIII, 1 (1983), 19-43
153. David Vogel, Kindred Strangers: The Uneasy Relationship Between Politics and Business in America (Princeton, NJ, 1996)
154. Richard J. Leighton, 'Consumer Protection Agency proposals: The origin of the species', Administrative Law Review, XXV (1973), 269-311
155. Ardith Maney and Loree Bykerk, Consumer Politics: Protecting Public Interests on Capitol Hill (Estport, Connecticut, 1994)
156. Mark Green, 'Why the consumer bill went down', The Nation, 25 February 1978, 198-201
157. Graham Wilson, 'American business and politics' in Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis (eds), Interest Group Politics (2nd edn, Washington, DC, 1986), 221-35
158. Dan Clawson and Mary Ann Clawson, 'Reagan or business? Foundations of the new conservatism' in Michael Schwartz (ed.), The Structure of Power in America: The Corporate Elite as a Ruling Class (New York, 1987), 201-17
159. James Allen Smith, The Idea Brokers: Think Tanks and the Rise of the New Policy Elite (New York, 1991)
160. Derek Arend Wilcox (ed.), The Right Guide: A Guide to Conservative and Right-of-Center Organizations (3rd edn, Ann Arbor, 1997)
161. Graham K. Wilson, Business and Politics: A Comparative Introduction (2nd edn, Basingstoke, 1990)
162. Peter Steinfels, The Neoconservatives: The Men Who are Changing America's Politics (New York, 1979).
163. David Sanford, Me and Ralph: Is Nader Unsafe for America? (Washington, DC, 1976)
164. Justin Martin, Nader: Crusader, Spoiler, Icon (Cambridge, MA, 2002)
165. Patricia Cronin Marcello, Ralph Nader: A Biography (Westport, Connecticut, 2004)
166. Capital Legal Foundation, Abuse of Trust: A Report on Ralph Nader's Network (Chicago, 1982)
167. Ralph Nader, The Ralph Nader Reader (New York, 2000)
168. Ralph Nader (ed.), The Consumer and Corporate Accountability (New York, 1973)
169. Ralph Nader, Crashing the Party: Taking on the Corporate Government in an Age of Surrender (New York, 2002)
170. Ralph Nader and William Taylor, The Big Boys: Power and Position in American Business (New York, 1986).
171. Membership of Consumers Union reached five million in 1992. Ten years later, it became the largest publication based website with one million subscribers.
172. Interview with Rhoda Karpatkin, 19 February 2005.
173. Michael Geyer and Charles Bright, 'World history in a global age', American Historical Review, C, 4 (1995), 1034-60.
174. Charles Maier, 'Consigning the twentieth century to history: Alternative narratives for the modern era', American Historical Review, CV, 3 (2000), 807-31.
175. John Boli and George M. Thomas, 'INGOs and the organization of world culture' in John Boli and George M. Thomas, Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (Stanford, CA, 1999), 13-49
176. Harold K. Jacobson, Networks of Interdependence: International Organizations and the Global Political System (2nd edn, New York, 1984).
177. Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley, CA, 2002).
178. Barbara Watson Andaya and Leonard Y. Andaya, A History of Malaysia (Honolulu, 2001), 298.
179. ibid.;
180. T. N. Harper, The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya (Cambridge, 1999)
181. Ziauddin Sardar, The Consumption of Kuala Lumpur (London, 2000)
182. Joel S. Kahn and Francis Loh Kok Wah, 'Introduction: Fragmented vision' in Joel S. Kahn and Francis Loh Kok Wah (eds), Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia (Sydney, 1992).
183. For a study of the reach of communalist party politics into the most remote rural communities in Malaysia, see: James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, 1985).
184. Interview with Anwar Fazal, conducted by Jeremy Seabrook, 17 July 1997
185. Mahmuda Bibi, 'A short note on the early history of the consumer movement in Malaysia', unpublished paper (private papers of Anwar Fazal), 2003. The British writer and activist, Jeremy Seabrook, worked with CAP in the 1990s and planned a biography of Idris and a study of the work of CAP: This has not been published but I am extremely grateful to him for making his notes available to me.
186. Interview with T. Rajamoorthy, conducted by Jeremy Seabrook, 1994; interview with Anwar Fazal, 13 April 2004. For a fuller treatment of consumer organizing and civil society in Malaysia see M. Hilton, 'The consumer movement and civil society in Malaysia', International Review of Social History, forthcoming.
187. Interview with Anwar Fazal, conducted by Jeremy Seabrook, 17 July 1997
188. Ralph Nader, Unsafe at any Speed: The Designed-in Dangers of the American Automobile (New York, 1965).
189. Sumit Mandal, 'Trans-ethnic solidarities, racialization and social equality' in Edmund Terence Gomez (ed.), The State of Malaysia: Ethnicity, Equity and Reform (London, 2004).
190. The Phoenix: Newsletter of the University of Malaya Graduates Society of Penang, 1, 4 (October 1969), 1
191. University of Malaya Graduates Society of Penang, Press release, October 1969 (private papers of Anwar Fazal)
192. interview with Anwar Fazal, 13 April 2004
193. CAP, 1st Annual Report, 1969-1970 (Penang, 1971).
194. S. M. Mohamed Idris, Reflections on Malaysian Society: Where Do We Go From Here? (Penang, 2003), 38
195. interview with S. M. Mohamed Idris, 16 April 2004.
196. Interview with Anwar Fazal, conducted by Jeremy Seabrook, 17 July 1997.
197. Utusan Konsumer, 7, February - March 1972, 1.
198. Interview with Anwar Fazal, conducted by Jeremy Seabrook, 17 July 1997.
199. Utusan Konsumer, 13, September - December 1973, 1.
200. Utusan Konsumer, 14, January - February 1974, 2
201. Utusan Konsumer, 16, June - August 1974, 1.
202. Utusan Konsumer, 17, September - December 1974, 5.
203. Utusan Konsumer, 18, January - March 1975, 2.
204. CAP, Pollution: Kuala Juru's Battle for Survival (Penang, 1976)
205. CAP, Kuala Juru: A People's Cooperative (Penang, 1980).
206. Lim Teck Ghee, 'Non-governmental organizations in Malaysia and regional networking' in Tadashi Yamamoto (ed.), Emerging Civil Society in the Asia Pacific Community: Nongovernmental Underpinnings of the Emerging Asia Pacific Regional Community (Singapore, 1996), 165-82.
207. CAP, Crisis in Malaysian Fishing (Penang, 1977)
208. CAP, The Malaysian Fisheries: A Diminishing Resource (Penang, 1977); 210 Dexter and Troth Tiranti, People with a Purpose: The Consumers' Association of Penang (Penang, 1985), 17-24.
209. CAP, Selling Dreams: How Advertising Misleads Us (Penang, 1986), 103; 212 Utusan Konsumer, 118, May 1984, 1.
210. CAP, The Other Baby Killer (Penang, 1981), 14
211. CAP, Breastfeeding: The Best Start in Life (Penang, 1990)
212. CAP, Drugs and the Third World: Phenylbutazone and Oxyphenbutazone Sale and Hazards - a Malaysian Study (Penang, 1984)
213. CAP, Pesticide Problems, Legislation and Consumer Action in the Third World: The Malaysian Experience (Penang, 1985)
214. Evelyn Hong, Natives of Sarawak (Penang, 1991)
215. CAP, Battle for the Environment: The Malaysian Experience (Penang, 1974)
216. CAP, The Malaysian Environment in Crisis: Selections from Press Cuttings (Penang, 1978)
217. CAP and Institut Masyarakat, Appropriate Technology, Culture and Lifestyle in Development: Declarations and Resolutions of Seminar, November 1981 (Penang, 1982)
218. CAP, Padi Pollution in Kuala Kedah (Penang, 1978)
219. Evelyn Hong, See the Third World While It Lasts: The Social and Environmental Impact of Tourism with Special Reference to Malaysia (Penang, 1985)
220. Evelyn Hong (ed.), Malaysian Women: Problems and Issues (Penang, 1983)
221. CAP, Rape in Malaysia (Penang, 1988).
222. CAP, Look Out! They're After Your Money: A CAP Guide to Sales Tactics and How to Avoid Them (Penang, 1987)
223. CAP, The Hire-Purchase Trap: How You Can be Cheated and What to Do About It (Penang, 1986).
224. Utusan Konsumer, 152, March 1987, 11
225. S. M. Mohamed Idris, Malaysian Consumers and Development (Penang, 1986)
226. S. M. Mohamed Idris, For a Sane, Green Future (Penang, 1990).
227. Utusan Konsumer, 159, October 1987, 1-14.
228. Budi Rusindah, Kampung Diary (Penang, 1992), 7
229. Lim Jee Yuan, The Malay House: Rediscovering Malaysia's Indigenous Shelter System (Penang, 1987)
230. Joel S. Kahn, 'Class, ethnicity and diversity: Some remarks on Malay culture in Malaysia' in Kahn and Loh, Fragmented Vision, op. cit., 158-78.
231. On Malaysian nostalgia for kampung life see the cartoons of Lat, Kampung Boy: Yesterday and Today (Kuala Lumpur, 1999).
232. Committee Against Repression in the Pacific and Asia, Tangled Web: Dissent, Deterrence and the 27 October 1987 Crackdown in Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1988).
233. On authoritarianism Nn Malaysia see: Harold Crouch, 'Malaysia: neither authoritarian nor democratic' in Kevin Hewison, Richard Robison and Garry Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism (Sydney, 1993)
234. William Case, 'Semi-democracy in Malaysia: Withstanding the pressures for regime change', Pacific Affairs, LXVI, 2 (1993)
235. Zakaria Haji Ahmad, 'Malaysia: Quasi-democracy in a divided society' in Larry Diamong, Juan J. Linz and Seymour Martin Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries, vol. 3 (Boulder, 1989)
236. Edmund Terence Gomez and Jomo, K. S., Malaysia's Political Economy: Politics, Patronage and Profits (Cambridge, 1997), 3
237. Kahn and Loh, 'Introduction' in Kahn and Loh, Fragmented Vision, op. cit., 1
238. Harold Crouch, 'Authoritarian trends, the UMNO split and the limits of state power', in ibid., 21-43
239. Hua Wu Yin, Class and Communalism in Malaysia: Politics in a Dependent Capitalist State (London, 1983).
240. On civil society see: Khoo Boo Teik, Beyond Mahathir: Malaysian Politics and its Discontents (London, 2003)
241. Vidhu Verma, Malaysia: State and Civil Society in Transition (Petaling Jaya, 2004)
242. Meredith Weiss, 'Malaysian NGOs: History, legal framework and characteristics' in Meredith L. Weiss and Saliha Hassan (eds), Social Movements in Malaysia: From Moral Communities to NGOs (London, 2003), 17-44
243. Sheila Nair, 'Constructing civil society in Malaysia: Nationalism, hegemony and resistance' in Jomo K. S. (ed.), Rethinking Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur, 1999), 84-106.
244. Martin Khor, Globalization and the South: Some Critical Issues (Penang, 2001)
245. Martin Khor, 'The WTO and the South: Implications and recent developments' in Sothi Rachagan (ed.), Consumer Protection in the WTO Era (Louvain-la-Neuve, France, 1999), 187-222
246. Martin Khor and Lim Li Lin (eds), Good Practices and Innovative Experiences in the South, vol 1: Economic, Environmental and Sustainable Livelihood Initiatives; vol 2: Social Policies, Indigenous Knowledge and Appropriate Technology; vol 3: Citizen Initiatives in Social Services, Popular Education and Human Rights (London and Penang, 2001).
247. Rokiah Talib, 'Malaysia: Power shifts and the matrix of consumption' in Chua Beng-Huat (ed.), Consumption in Asia: Lifestyles and Identities (London, 2000), 35-60
248. Antonio L. Rappa, Modernity and Consumption: Theory, Politics and the Public in Singapore and Malaysia (Singapore, 2002)
249. Sardar, op. cit.
250. CI-ROAP, A Discerning Middle Class? A Preliminary Enquiry of Sustainable Consumption Trends in Selected Countries in the Asia Pacific Region (Penang, 1997).
251. The growth of NGOs has long been recognized, though it has perhaps only recently attracted the attention of historians: Kjell Skjelsbaek, 'The growth of international non-governmental organization in the twentieth century', International Organization, XXV, 3 (1971), 420-42
252. Boli and Thomas, 'INGOs and the organization of world culture', op. cit.
253. Iriye, op. cit.
254. Interview with Julian Edwards, 8 September 2004; interview with Rhoda Karpatkin, 19 February 2005; interview with Anwar Fazal, 13 April 2004.