Senegal's foreign policy: Challenges of democratization and marginalization

African Affairs

Volumn 96, Issue 385, 1997, Pages 485-508

  Schraeder, Peter J ^a  

^a LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATIZATION; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; FOREIGN POLICY; HISTORICAL TRENDS; POLICY MAKING; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

SENEGAL;

EID: 34248112151     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007881     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Doudou Thiam, La politique étrangère des états Africains: ses fondements idéologiques, sa réalité présente, ses perspectives d'avenir (Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1963).
2. Thiam, La politique étrangère, pp. 2, 116.
3. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
4. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
5. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
6. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
7. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
8. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
9. For an introduction to the African foreign policy literature, see Vernon McKay, (ed.), African Diplomacy - Studies in the Determinants of Foreign Policy (Praeger, New York, 1966); Kenneth Ingham, (ed.), The Foreign Relations of African States (Butterworth, London, 1974); Olajide Aluko, (ed.), The Foreign Policies of African States (Hodder and Stoughton, London, 1977); Timothy M. Shaw and Olajide Aluko, eds., The Political Economy of African Foreign Policy (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984); and Timothy M. Shaw and Julius Emeka Okolo, (eds.), The Political Economy of Foreign Policy in ECOWAS (St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994). See also Christopher Clapham and William Wallace, (eds.), Foreign Policy Making in Developing States: A comparative approach (Saxon House, Farnborough, 1977); and Bahgat Korany (with contributors), How Foreign Policy Decisions are Made in the Third World: A comparative analysis (Westview Press, Boulder, 1986).
10. The most comprehensive (but now dated) analysis of Senegalese foreign policy remains W. A. E. Skurnik, The Foreign Policy of Senegal (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1972). For an analysis of this policy during the 1970s written by a French scholar, see Pierre Biarnès, 'La diplomatie Sénégalais', Revue Française d'Etudes Politiques Africaines, 149 (1978), pp. 62-78. For a recent overview focusing on Senegal's regional foreign policy and written primarily by Senegalese scholars, see Momar-Coumba Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins (Sociétés-Espaces-Temps, Dakar, 1994).
11. The most comprehensive (but now dated) analysis of Senegalese foreign policy remains W. A. E. Skurnik, The Foreign Policy of Senegal (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1972). For an analysis of this policy during the 1970s written by a French scholar, see Pierre Biarnès, 'La diplomatie Sénégalais', Revue Française d'Etudes Politiques Africaines, 149 (1978), pp. 62-78. For a recent overview focusing on Senegal's regional foreign policy and written primarily by Senegalese scholars, see Momar-Coumba Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins (Sociétés-Espaces-Temps, Dakar, 1994).
12. The most comprehensive (but now dated) analysis of Senegalese foreign policy remains W. A. E. Skurnik, The Foreign Policy of Senegal (Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1972). For an analysis of this policy during the 1970s written by a French scholar, see Pierre Biarnès, 'La diplomatie Sénégalais', Revue Française d'Etudes Politiques Africaines, 149 (1978), pp. 62-78. For a recent overview focusing on Senegal's regional foreign policy and written primarily by Senegalese scholars, see Momar-Coumba Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins (Sociétés-Espaces-Temps, Dakar, 1994).
13. Stated in Article 1 of the constitution. Six languages - Diola, Malinke, Puiaar, Serer, Soninke, and Wolof - are recongnized in the same article as 'national' languages.
14. For an overview of Senghor's life, see Janet G. Vaillant, Black, French, and African: A life of Léopold Sédar Senghor (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1990).
15. See Sheldon Gellar, Senegal: An African nation between Islam and the West (Westview Press, Boulder, 2nd. ed., 1995), p. 39.
16. Thiam, The Foreign Policy of African States, p. 39.
17. For example, see the special issue of Le Débat (26 February 1996), a Senegalese weekly newspaper, devoted to coverage of the 1996 visit to Senegal of Pierre Mauroy, the president of Socialist International.
18. During 16-30 June 1995, for example, the Senegalese government organized a major international conference, 'L' AOF: de la Création à la Balkanisation (1895-1960)' ('AOF: From Creation to Balkanization (1895-1960)'), that heralded the 100-year anniversary of the creation of the AOF. See also Joseph Roger de Benoist, L'Afrique Occidentale Française de la Conférence de Brazzaville (1944) à l'indépendance (1960) (Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines, Dakar, 1982).
19. For an overview of Wolof culture, see Abdoulaye-Bara Diop, La société Wolof: tradition et changement (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1981). For an analysis of the interplay between French colonialism and Wolof culture, see Mamadou Diouf, Le Kajoor au XIXe siècle: pouvoir ceddo et conquête coloniale (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1990).
20. For an overview of Wolof culture, see Abdoulaye-Bara Diop, La société Wolof: tradition et changement (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1981). For an analysis of the interplay between French colonialism and Wolof culture, see Mamadou Diouf, Le Kajoor au XIXe siècle: pouvoir ceddo et conquête coloniale (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1990).
21. See Leigh Swigert, 'Cultural Creolization and Language Use in Postcolonial Africa: The Case of Senegal', Africa 64, 2 (1994), pp. 175-89.
22. See Makhtar Diouf, Sénégal: Les ethnies et la nation (Editions L'Harmattan, Paris, 1994).
23. Gellar, Senegal, p. 55. For an overview, see Gilles Duruflé, Le Sénégal peut-il sortir de la crise? Douze ans d'ajustement structurel au Sénégal (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1994).
24. Gellar, Senegal, p. 55. For an overview, see Gilles Duruflé, Le Sénégal peut-il sortir de la crise? Douze ans d'ajustement structurel au Sénégal (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1994).
25. Gellar, Senegal, p. 55.
26. See Momar Coumba Diop and Mamadou Diouf, Le Sénégal sous Abdou Diouf: Etat et société (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1990), especially chs. 5, 9, and 12.
27. Personal interview.
28. For an historical overview, see Martin A. Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal: Sine-Saloum 1847-1914 (Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1968).
29. See Leonardo A. Villalón, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and citizens in Fatick (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995).
30. For example, see Crawford Young and Babacar Kante, 'Governance, Democracy, and the 1988 Senegalese Elections', in Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1992); and Leonardo A. Villalón, 'Democratizing a (Quasi) Democracy: The Senegalese Elections of 1993', African Affairs 93, 371 (1994), 163-93.
31. For example, see Crawford Young and Babacar Kante, 'Governance, Democracy, and the 1988 Senegalese Elections', in Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton, (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1992); and Leonardo A. Villalón, 'Democratizing a (Quasi) Democracy: The Senegalese Elections of 1993', African Affairs 93, 371 (1994), 163-93.
32. Villalón, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal, p. 2.
33. Thiam, The Foreign Policy of African States, p. xi.
34. Ousmane Tanor Dieng, 'Exposé sur la Politique Extérieure du Sénégal', speech delivered on 15 September 1989 to a meeting of PS members (text provided by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs).
35. Quoted in Vaillant, Black, French, and African, p. 324.
36. See Zyad Limam, 'Afrique cherche porte-parole', Jeune Afrique, 1794 (25-31 May 1995), pp. 52-54.
37. Personal interviews.
38. For an overview of the problems associated with such schemes, see Guy Martin, 'African Regional Cooperation and Integration: Achievements, Problems and Prospects', in Ann Seidman and Frederick Anang, (eds.), 21st Century Africa: Towards a new vision of self-sustainable development (Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ, 1992), pp. 69-100; and Olatunde Ojo, 'Regional Co-operation and Integration', in Olatunde Ojo, D. K. Orwa, and C. M. B. Utete, African International Relations (Longman, London, 1985), pp. 142-83.
39. For an overview of the problems associated with such schemes, see Guy Martin, 'African Regional Cooperation and Integration: Achievements, Problems and Prospects', in Ann Seidman and Frederick Anang, (eds.), 21st Century Africa: Towards a new vision of self-sustainable development (Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ, 1992), pp. 69-100; and Olatunde Ojo, 'Regional Co-operation and Integration', in Olatunde Ojo, D. K. Orwa, and C. M. B. Utete, African International Relations (Longman, London, 1985), pp. 142-83.
40. Gellar, Senegal, p. 84.
41. See Peter J. Schraeder, 'From Berlin 1884 to 1989: Foreign Assistance and French, American, and Japanese Competition in Francophone Africa', The Journal of Modern African Studies 33, 4 (1995), p. 548.
42. For example, see Moriba Magassouba, L'islam au Sénégal: Demain les mollahs? (Editions Karthala, Paris, 1985).
43. See Diop and Diouf, Le Sénégal sous Abdou Diouf, p. 19.
44. Personal interviews.
45. Personal interviews.
46. See François Soudan, 'La contagion kaki', Jeune Afrique 1833 (21-27 February 1996), pp. 19-20.
47. See Sennen Andriamirado, 'Sénégal: ça n'arrive qu'aux autres', Jeune Afrique 1833 (21-27 February 1996), p. 23.
48. Dieng, 'Exposé sur la politique extérieure du Sénégal', p. 7.
49. See Cheikh Tidiane Thiam, Droit public du Sénégal (Vol. 1): L'état et le citoyen (Les Editions du CREDILA, Dakar, 1993).
50. Both received their training in the Faculty of Law and Political Science at Cheikh Anta Diop University, and subsequently in the 'Diplomatic Section' at the Ecole Nationale d'Administration et de Magistrature.
51. Personal interview.
52. See Badara Diouf, 'Le nouveau gouvernement: un nouveau challenge pour Habib Thiam', Le Soleil, 16 March 1994, p. 8.
53. For a description of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, see Skurnik, The Foreign Policy of Senegal, pp. 63-99.
54. Elhadj Mbodj, 'Senegal's Foreign Policy'. Typed notes of a presentation made at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.
55. Mbodj, 'Senegal's Foreign Policy'.
56. See Momar Coumba Diop and Moussa Paye, 'Armée et pouvoir au Sénégal', paper presented at a CODESRIA-sponsored seminar on the 'Military and Militarism in Africa', Accra, Ghana, 21-23 April 1993, pp. 8-9.
57. Diop and Paye, 'Armée et pouvoir', pp. 8-9.
58. Personal interviews.
59. For an excellent overview, see Robert A. Mortimer, 'Senegal's Role in Ecomog: The Francophone Dimension in the Uberian Crisis', Journal of Modern African Studies 34, 2 (1996), pp. 293-306.
60. Quoted in Papa Mor Sylla, 'Le travail des députes: Entre les séances-marathon et le repos prolongé', Le Soleil, 27 July 1995, p. 5.
61. Sylla, 'Le travail', p. 5.
62. See Abdou Lauf Coulibaly, 'Rôle de la presse dans la sauvegarde et la consolidation de la démocratie au Sénégal', Afrique Espoir, 12 (December 1994), pp. 15-19.
63. See the series of articles and op-ed pieces in Le Soleil, Le Sud, and Wal Fadjri during the week of 11-18 March 1996.
64. See the series of articles and op-ed pieces in Le Soleil, Le Sud, and Wal Fadjri during the week of 11-18 March 1996.
65. See R. Parker, 'The Senegal-Mauritania Conflict of 1989': a fragile equilibrium', Journal of Modern African Studies 29, 1 (1991), pp. 155-71; and Anthony G. Pazzanita, 'Mauritania's Foreign Policy: The Search for Protection', The Journal of Modern African Studies 30, 2 (1992), pp. 281-304.
66. See R. Parker, 'The Senegal-Mauritania Conflict of 1989': a fragile equilibrium', Journal of Modern African Studies 29, 1 (1991), pp. 155-71; and Anthony G. Pazzanita, 'Mauritania's Foreign Policy: The Search for Protection', The Journal of Modern African Studies 30, 2 (1992), pp. 281-304.
67. Indeed, other regions (e.g. Latin America and South Asia) are considered important to the future of Senegalese foreign policy, although they are not usually cited when discussing Senegalese foreign policy priorities.
68. See Moustapha Kane, 'Le Sénégal et la Guinée (1958-1978)', in Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins, pp. 164-88.
69. See Ousseynou Faye, 'La crise casamançaise et les relations du Sénégal avec la Gambie et Guinea-Bissau (1980-1992)', in Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins, pp. 189-214.
70. See Ibrahima Thioub, 'Le Sénégal et le Mali', in Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins, pp. 95-116.
71. Personal interview.
72. Personal interview.
73. See Momar Coumba Diop, 'Des équilibres instables', in Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins, pp. 1-32.
74. See Jean Schmitz, 'Hydropolitique du fleuve Sénégal (1975-1991): Problèmes fonciers, frontière et ethnicisation des conflits', in Diop, (ed.), Le Sénégal et ses voisins, pp. 60-81.
75. Diop, 'Des équilibres instables', p. 21.
76. Personal interviews.
77. For an overview of Senegalese-Nigerian relations during the Senghor years, see Bamitale Omole, 'Bilateral Relations Between Nigeria and Senegal, 1960-1980: Cooperation and Conflicts', Génève-Afrique 25, 2 (1987), pp. 80-101.
78. For example, see the coverage of this event in Le Soleil, 9-14 January 1996.
79. See Peter J. Schraeder, 'Elites as Facilitators or Impediments to Political Development? Lessons from the 'Third Wave' of Democraozation in Africa', The Journal of Developing Areas 29, 1 (1994), pp. 69-90.
80. For a more extended analysis, see Schraeder, 'From Berlin 1884 to 1989'.
81. For example, see Salih Booker, 'Thinking Regionally: Priorities for U.S. Policy toward Africa', Africa Policy Information Center, Background Paper No. 5 (March 1996).