Co-operation of European Catholic politicians in exile in Britain and the USA during the second world war

Journal of Contemporary History

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2000, Pages

  Kaiser, Wolfram ^a  

^a College of Europe   (Belgium)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34248092292     PISSN: 00220094     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/002200940003500307     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. Even Roberto Papini, The Christian Democrat International (Lanham, Boulder, New York and London 1997) - mainly based on memoirs and Sturzo's archives - only devotes one and a half pages to the Catholic exile
2. Based largely on the analysis of resistance publications and not of co-operation in exile, the first view is advanced in the publications by Walter Lipgens quoted in this article. For the revisionist (realist) interpretation, see especially Alan S. Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945-51 (London 1984); idem, The European Rescue of the Nation-State (London 1993)
3. On the French Christian Democrat resistance and the formation of the MRP see Pierre Letamendia, Le Mouvement Républicain Populuire. Histoire d'un grand parti français (Paris 1995). See also Maurice Vaussard, Histoire de la Démocratic Chrétienne. I: France-Belgique- Italie (Paris 1956), 102-8
4. Pierre Letamendia, Le Mouvement Républicain Populuire. Histoire d'un grand parti français (Paris 1995)
5. Ernest Pezet, Chrétiens au service de la Cité. De Léon XIII au Sillon et au MRP 1891-1965 (Paris 1965), 128
6. Francesco Piva and Francesco Malgeri, Vita di Luigi Sturzo (Rome 1972), 295
7. Charles F. Delzell, Mussolini's Enemies. The Italian Anti-Fascist Resistance (Princeton, NJ 1961), 55
8. Joachim Radkau, Die deutsche Emigration in den USA. Ihr Einfluβ auf die amerikanische Europapotitik 1933-1945 (Düsseldorf 1971), 184
9. Ulrike Hörster-Philipps, Joseph Wirth 1879-1956. Eine politische Biographie (Paderborn 1998)
10. Helene Maimann, Politik im Wartesaal. Österreichische Exilpolitik in Grossbritannien 1938-1945 (Vienna, Cologne and Graz 1975), 101
11. Franz Goldner, Die österreichische Emigration 1938 bis 1945 (Vienna and Munich 1972), 20; a politically highly tendentious treatment of the Austrian exile insofar as Goldner holds the Social Christians to have been morally superior, despite their introduction of the authoritarian Ständestaat, as only they were categorically opposed to unification with Germany
12. Maimann, op.cit., 94
13. Cf. Guiseppe Ignesti, 'Momenti del Popolarismo in Esilio' in Pietro Scoppolo and Francesco Traniello (eds), I Cattolici tra Fascismo e Democrazia (Bologna 1975), 75-183, 101
14. Gabriele De Rosa, Luigi Sturzo (Turin 1977), 409
15. On the exile governments in London see, in a European perspective, Martin Conway, 'Legacies of Exile: The Exile Governments in London during World War II and the Politics of Postwar Europe' in Martin Conway and José Gotovitch (eds), Europe in Exile. European Refugee Communities in Britain 1939-1945 (Oxford and New York 2000 - forthcoming)
16. Pierre-Henri Laurent, 'Reality not Rhetoric: Belgian-Dutch Diplomacy in Wartime London, 1940-1944' in M.L. Smith and Peter M.R. Stirk (eds), Making the New Europe. European Unity and the Second World War (London 1990), 133-41
17. Theo Luykx, 'De rol van August De Schryver in het politieke leven tot en met de Tweede Wereldoorlog' in Veertig jaar Belgische politick. Liber amicorum aangeboden aan Minister van Staat A.E. De Schryver ter gelegenheid van zijn 70ste verjaardag (Antwerp and Utrecht 1968), 121-211, 199
18. On the relocation of the Free French government to Algiers see also, by way of introduction, Henri Michel, Histoire de la France libre, 3rd edn (Paris 1972), 92-108
19. Luc Schepens, De Belgen in Groot-Brittannië 1940-1944. Feiten en G etuigenissen (Nijmegen 1980), 71-112
20. For the question of the refugees' social welfare see also Matthew Buck, '"Feeding the Pauper Army". War Refugees and Welfare in Britain 1940-1942', Twentieth Century British History, 10, 3 (1999), 310-44
21. Joan Keating, 'The British Experience: Christian Democrats without a Party' in David Hanley (ed.), Christian Democracy in Europe. A Comparative Perspective (London 1 994), 1 68-81, 1 69
22. Tom Buchanan, 'Great Britain' in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway (eds), Political Catholicism in Europe, 1918-1965 (Oxford 1996), 248-74, 250
23. In the USA, religious questions cannot be asked of individuals in a census, so that we have no reliable figure. Estimates are mostly based on regional Church data. For more detail, see Roger Finke and Rodney Stark, The Churching of America, 1776-1990: The Winners and Losers in our Religious Economy (New Brunswick, NJ 1992)
24. For a useful introduction to American Catholicism see Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (Garden City 1985)
25. Cf. Joan Keating, Roman Catholics, Christian Democracy and the British Labour Movement 1910-1960, PhD Thesis, University of Manchester (Manchester 1992), chap. 3
26. James Flint, "'Must God go Fascist?" English Catholic Opinion and the Spanish Civil War', Church History, 56, 3 (1987), 364-74, 367
27. The Tablet, 1 August 1936
28. Hinsley to Franco, 28 March 1939, Westminster Diocesan Archives, Hinsley papers, HI 2/217
29. Tom Buchanan, The Spanish Civil War and the British Labour Movement (Cambridge 1991), 107
30. Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest. Huey Long, Father Coughiin, and the Great Depression (New York 1982), 279
31. Sheldon Marcus, Father Coughiin. The Tumultuous Life of the Priest of the Little Flower (Boston and Toronto 1973), 127
32. On Coughiin see also the new biography by Ronald H. Carpenter, Father Charles E. Coughiin. Surrogate Spokesman for the Disaffected (Westport, CT 1998)
33. On the by-election see in more detail Stuart Ball, The Politics of Appeasement: The Fall of the Duchess of Atholl and the Kinross and West Perth By-election, December 1938', The Scottish Historical Review, LXIX, 1 (1990), 49-83
34. On the Duchess and her later links with Catholic democrats of the People and Freedom Group and her brief role as British representative in the NEI in 1947 see the short comments in S.J. Hetherington, Katharine Atholl 1874-1960. Against the Tide (Aberdeen 1989)
35. Cf. Leo V. Kanawada, Franklin D. Roosevelt's Diplomacy and American Catholics, Italians and Jews (Epping 1982), 49-70
36. Luigi Sturzo, 'Anglo-American Catholics and Vichy', People & Freedom, 36 (1942), 3
37. Joan Keating, 'Looking to Europe: Roman Catholicism and Christian Democracy in 1930s Britain', European History Quarterly, 26, 1 (1996), 57-79, 64
38. 'General Meeting', People & Freedom, 4 (1939), 4
39. On Shuster who, after the war, temporarily became an American governor in Bavaria, see Thomas E. Blantz, George N. Shuster: On the Side of Truth (Notre Dame, IN 1993)
40. 'People & Freedom', People & Freedom, 1 (1938), 1-2
41. 'US People & Freedom. The New York Group', People & Freedom, 63 (1944), 4
42. 'From the Christian Democrats of Italy' [Alcide De Gasperi to Conrad Bonacina], People & Freedom, 68 (1945), 2
43. See the obituary by Barbara Barclay Carter, 'Virginia Crawford', People & Freedom, 108 (1948), 1
44. See the obituary by Crawford's successor, Conrad Bonacina, 'Obituary -Barbara Barclay Carter', People & Freedom, 124 (1951), 1-3
45. Katharine Duchess of Atholl, Working Partnership. Being the Lives of John George, 8th Duke of Atholl and of his Wife Katharine Marjory Ramsay (London 1958), 200
46. Katharine Duchess of Atholl, Searchlight on Spain (London 1937)
47. Katharine Duchess of Atholl, The Tragedy of Warsaw and its Documentation (London 1944)
48. 'People & Freedom', People & Freedom, 1 (1938), 1-2
49. Philippe Chenaux, 'Bijdrage tot de internationale christen-democratie' in Wilfried Dewachter et al. (eds), Tussen staat en maatschapsij 1945-1995. Christen-democratie in België (Tielt 1995), 253
50. 'Reception for Leading Christian Democrats', People & Freedom, 18 (1940), 4
51. "'White War'", People & Freedom, 5 (1 939), 1
52. Francesco Malgeri, Chiesa, Cattolici e Democrazia. Da Sturzo a De Gasperi (Brescia 1990), 196-8
53. International Christian Democratic Union', People & Freedom, 20 (1941), 4 speaks of an
54. initiative' of Onaindia. Onaindia emphasizes his own role and that of the ICDU's first chairman, J.A. Veraart, in his memoirs, Capitulos de mi vida II: Experiencias del exilio (Buenos Aires 1974), 216-18
55. 'International Christian Democratic Union', People & Freedom, 22 (1941), 2
56. On Haller see also the short biographical sketch by Stefan Aksamitek, General Józef Holler: zarys biografii politycznej (Katowice 1989)
57. For more detail on the Polish exile see John Coutouvidis and Jaime Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester 1986)
58. Cf. Peter Henmos, Die Emigration aus der Tschechoslowakei nach Westeuropa and dem Nahen Osten 1938-1945 (Munich 1989)
59. The Basque exile is treated in the context of Spanish opposition to Franco after 1939 in Sergio Vilar, Historia del Anti-Franquismo 1949-1975 (Barcelona 1984)
60. For the support of the Calvinist Gerbrandy for the initiative of Onaindia and Veraart see Onaindia, op.cit., 216-18. On Veraart's isolation among the Dutch politicians in exile in London see also Louis De Jong, Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, Vol. 9/2 ('s-Gravenhage 1979), 1445-6
61. On the ICDU activities during 1941-2 see also ICDU First Annual Report, Algemeen Rijksarchief (ARA), Collectie Veraart
62. 'International Christian Democratic Union', People & Freedom, 48 (1943), 5
63. Some additional information on this Dutch group can be gleaned from Veraart's own recollections in J.A. Veraart, 'Internationaal Werk in Londen. Fragmenten uit mijn Dagboek, 1940-1945', Katholiek Cultured Tijdschrift, 3 (1946-7), 56-63, 58-9
64. In 1941-2, for example, the ICDU spent the minute sum of £10 on paper, stamps, etc., and until May 1943 it had only dealt with three requests for information from 'semi-official circles'. 'Annual General Meeting' [1942|, People & Freedom, 36 (1942), 4
65. 'Veraart, Christian Democracy: Economic and Social Programme', People & Freedom, 28 (1941), 3
66. 'International Christian Democratic Union', People & Freedom, 40 (1942), 4
67. 'Luigi Sturzo, "The Bolshevist Peril"', People & Freedom, 37 (1942), 1
68. Louis Terrenoire, 'Corporatism and Democracy' in People and Freedom Group (ed,), For Democracy (London 1939), 185-209, 186
69. Devant la Crise Mondiale (New York 1942). See also the report 'Catholic Principles for the New Order', People & Freedom, 39 (1942), 1 + 4
70. Albert Masoin, 'Home-Coming to Liberty', People & Freedom, 57 (1944), 1
71. David Forgacs, 'Sturzo e la Cultura Politica Inglese' in Luigi Sturzo e la Democrazia Europea, a cura di Gabriele De Rosa (Rome 1990), 346
72. On the effect of the war on the perception of British democracy in western Europe and the impact of this perception on the British reform discourse see also, more generally, Wolfram Kaiser, 'The Political Reform Debate in Britain since 1945: The European Dimension', Contemporary British History, 12, 1 (1998), 48-76
73. Frans Van Cauwelaert, 'Dangers of a European Federation'. 2 April 1942. reprinted in Washington Post, 10 May 1942
74. 'A New League of Nations Now. Proposal Endorsed by International Christian Democratic Union', People & Freedom, 46 (1943), 3
75. This general view among Catholic refugees was expressed most coherently after the war by Luigi Sturzo, Nationalism and Internationalism (New York 1 946)
76. 'The Voice of Europe', People & Freedom, 53 (1943), 3
77. 'Downward Steps', People & Freedom, 57 (1944), 1
78. 'Sturzo, The Shade of Wilson and the Atlantic Charter', People & Freedom, 58 (1944), 1
79. See especially Luigi Sturzo, 'Italy after Mussolini', Foreign Affairs, 21 (1943) 3, 412-26. Sturzo's preoccupation towards the end of the war with narrow Italian national interests is also reflected in his autobiography, La Mia Battaglia da New York (Milan 1949). After the war, Carter defended the Italian case against the peace treaty in a somewhat one-sided book, published in English and Italian, Italy Speaks, with a Preface by Luigi Sturzo (London 1947)
80. 'International Christian Democratic Union. Annual General Meeting', People & Freedom, 61 (1944), 4
81. 'Sturzo, A New Germany', People & Freedom, 9 (1940), 3. Carl Spiecker, a Catholic from Prussian Westfalia, put forward a more differentiated view of Prussia's role in his book Germany - From Defeat to Defeat (London 1945), for which he was praised in the foreword by the British historian, Professor R.W. Seton-Watson
82. Biographisches Handbuch der deutschspraehigen Emigration nach 1933, Vol. 1: Politik, Wirtschaft, öffentliches Leben (Munich and New York 1980) has no entry under Karl Meyer
83. Michal Kwiatkowski, 'Poland and Bast Prussia', People & Freedom, 57 (1944), 3. The national Polish-German antagonism was, of course, strengthened by the religious divide between Catholic Poles and Protestant Germans in these parts of Germany
84. 'Crawford, Where We Stand', People & Freedom, 6 (1939), 1
85. 'States or Peoples', People & Freedom, 69 (1945), 1
86. 'Victory and After', People & Freedom, 71 (1945), 1
87. Spiecker, op.cit., 153
88. Martin Conway, Catholic Politics in Europe 1918-1945 (London 1997), 89, makes a similar point with regard to the Christian Democrat resistance