International Law, the crime of aggression and the ius ad bellum

International Criminal Law Review

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 301-373

  Griffiths, Richard L ^a  

^a LLM ^*  (United Kingdom)

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EID: 34248075563     PISSN: 1567536X     EISSN: 15718123     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/156753602761061815     Document Type: Article

References (219)

1. For ancient writers see: "The Histories of Polybius", Shuckburgh translation to English pp 171-74, 189
2. et seq; Aristophanes, "Lystrata", Fittes translation to English pp. 41;
3. Plato, "Laws", i. 628B; vii. 803; viii. 829A.
4. For medieval writers see: St. Augustine, "Questiones in Heptateuchum", vi. 10b;
5. Giovanni de Legnano, "Tractus de bello, de represaliis et de duello".
6. Printed in A. J. I. L. (1920), p 95.
7. Documents on International Affairs, 1929, pp. 274 et seq.
8. L. N. O. J. Spec. Suppl. No. 101, pp. 87-88.
9. Oxford, 1963, pp. 75-80.
10. See Kellog's assurance to the French Ambasador in Hunter Miller, "The Peace Pact of Paris", New York and London, 1928, p. 43. 1
11. See footnote 1 on p. 76 of Brownlie, op cit Note 11.
12. Charter of the IMT Nuremberg, August 8th 1945, 82 UNTS (1951)
13. 39 AJIL 1945, 258.
14. Charter of the IMT for the Far East, January 1st 1946, reprinted in McDonald/Swaak-Goldman (eds), "International Criminal Law", Vol. II, part 1, 2000, p. 73.
15. Trial of the Major War Criminals, Proceedings of the IMT, Nuremberg, pt 22, H. M. S. O 1950(hereafter "Nuremberg proceedings"), 447
16. 41 AJIL 1947, 172 at 221.
17. Nuremberg proceedings, 421, 41 AJIL 1947 186.
18. See L. S. Sunga, "The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Development in Codification and Implementation", Kluwer, 1997 pp. 41-43.
19. 1 I. M. T. 171, 219-223.
20. For example, see Finch, "The Nuremberg trial and international law", 41 A. J. I. L. (1947) 20, 33-34.
21. United States of America v Von Weizsaecker et al 14 N. M. T. 314, 318-322.
22. Elihu Lauterpacht, "The legal irrelevance of the state of war", 62 AJIL 62(1968).
23. Brentwich and Martin, "Commentary on the Charter of the United Nations", Routledge and Keegan, 1951 p. 85.
24. See. the Rome Statute 1998, Article 5(2).
25. For a reflection of this debate see 1995 Ad Hoc Committee Report, paras. 71 and 122
26. and 1996 Ad Hoc Committee Report Vol. II, paras. 137-138.
27. PCNICC/1999/l.5/Rev. 1, Exercise of Jurisdiction, Option 1., para. 5.
28. PCNICC/2001/l.3/Re. v. 1., p. 20., para. IV.
29. A/AC.249/1997/WG.1/DP. 6., 21st February. 1997.
30. GA. Res. 3314 (XXIX) of 1974, 29th Session, Supplement No. 31.
31. See Von Hebel and Robinson, "Crimes within the jurisdiction of the court", in Lee (ed), "The International Criminal Court, The making of the Rome Statute: Issues, Negotiations, Results", Kluwer, 1999. pp. 81-85.
32. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: draft resolution on the definition of aggression. Doc A/C.1/608.
33. Thirty first meeting, 6th Feb. 1933, re-printed in Ferencz, "Defining international aggression: the search for world peace", Oceana, 1975, Vol I. pp. 198 et seq.
34. The accepted view is that the phrases "territorial integrity" and "political independence" are not intended to restrict the scope of the prohibition on the use of force. The accepted view is that the two modes mentioned cover any possible kind of trans-frontier use of armed force. "Integrity" should be read as "inviolability". Oppenheim, "International law ii, disputes, war and neutrality", Longmans and Green, 1955. p. 154;
35. Greig, "International law", Butterworths, 1976. p. 871;
36. Brownlie, International law and the use of force by states, Oxford, 1963. p. 267;
37. Simma, "The Charter of the United Nations, a commentary", Oxford, 1994. p. 117.
38. Kelson and Tucker (eds) "Principles of international law, Rinehart", 1966. p. 86;
39. Brownlie, International law and the use of force by states, Oxford, 963. p. 362;
40. Bowett, "Selfdefence in international law", Manchester, 1958. p. 148;
41. Dienstein, "War, aggression and self-defence", Cambridge, 1994. p. 84;
42. Simma (ed), "The Charter of the United Nations: a commentary", Oxford, 1994. p. 112.
43. For example, see the commentary given by Asrat, "Prohibition of force under the UN Charter-A study of Art. 2(4) ", Uppsala: IUSTUS Forlag. 1991. pp. 113-138.
44. UNCIO VI, pp. 334 and 609.
45. 135 LNTS 19.
46. See the commentary in Brownlie, op cit note 51 at pp. 265-267.
47. Wright, "The outlawry of war and the law of war", 47 AJIL (1953) 365 at 370;
48. Ott, "Public international in the modern world", Pitman, 1987, p. 309;
49. Cassese, "International law in a divided world", Oxford Clarendon, 1986. p. 137.
50. PCNICC/2002/WGCA/RT. 1.
51. A notable exception to this was the UK which preferred option 1. See CICC minutes of WGCA, 9th Prep. Comm. 16th April 2002.
52. GA Res. 3314 (xxix) of 1974.
53. Rome Statute for an International Criminal Court 1998, Article 66(2).
54. Charter of the United Nations, Article 24.
55. GA Res. 377 (V) of 1950.
56. Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2 of the Charter) [1962] I. C. J. Rep 151.
57. Simma (ed), "The Charter of the United Nations: A commentary", Oxford, 1994, at 245.
58. See also, Blum, "Eroding the United Nations Charter", Kluwer, 1993.
59. SC Res. 678 of 1990.
60. UN Blue Book Series, Vol. IX, The UN and the Iraq/Kuwait conflict 1990-1996, UN Publications.
61. For example, see Sarooshi, "The United Nations and the development of collective security: The delegation by the UN Security Council of its Chapter VII powers", Oxford, 1999. p. 174;
62. Greenwood, "New world order or old? The invasion of Kuwait and the rule of Law", 55 MLR (1992) 153.
63. 31 ILM (1992) 953.
64. Case concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua, Merits [1986] I. C. J. Rep. 14 paras 195-205.
65. Trotter, "A frozen hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-40", Algonquin, 2000. pp. 58-61.
66. UK materials on international law, 57 BYIL (1986) 614.
67. For a review of the literature on the point see Gray, "International law and the use of force", Oxford, 2000. p. 57.
68. Brownlie, "International law and the use of force by states", Oxford 1963, p. 278
69. Alexandrov, "Self-defence against the use of force in international law", Kluwer 1996, p. 96.
70. U. S. Senate, Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations on the North Atlantic Treaty, Exec. Report no. 8, p. 13.
71. Nicaragua v. the United States I. C. J. Reports, 1986 14, para 195.
72. *Gray's note: "Franck, "Some Observations on the ICJ's Procedural and Substantive Innovations", 81 AJIL (1987) 116 at 120;
73. Norton Moore, "The Nicaragua case and the deterioration of World Order" 81 AJIL (1987) 151 at 154."
74. Gray, "International law and the use of force", Oxford 2000, pp. 98-99.
75. See McDougal, "The Soviet-Cuban quarantine and self-defence", 57 AJIL (1963) 597;
76. Schacter, "International law in theory and practice", Dordrecht 1991, p. 150;
77. Rowstow, "Disputes involving the inherent right of self-defence"
78. in Damrosch (ed), "The international court of justice at a crossroads", New York 1987, p. 274.
79. UN Doc. A/C.6/35/SR. 48-59.
80. See Jennings, 32 AJIL (1938) p. 89.
81. See Cassese, "Terrorism is also disrupting some crucial legal categories of international law", EJIL online forum, Oct. 2001, www.ejil.org/forum-wtc.
82. 2360th mtg (May 21st, 1982), paras. 99-127.
83. Granville, "The Falkland (Malvinas) Islands: An international law analysis of the dispute between Argentina and Great Britain", 107 Military law Review 5(1985), pp. 54-55 and 62-64;
84. Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council 1981-1984, New York 1992, p. 326.
85. Brownlie, "International law and the use of force by states", Oxford 1963, pp. 261-263.
86. Ferencz, "Defining international aggression: the search for world peace", Oceana, 1975. Vol. I, p. 474.
87. See Vattel, "The law of nations", Book II, Chapter VI, para 71
88. in 3 "Classics of international law" 13;
89. Alexandrov, "Self-defense against the use force in international law", Kluwer 1996, p. 188.
90. Stowell, "Intervention in international law", Washington 1921, pp. 414-431;
91. Borchard, "The diplomatic protection of citizens abroad or the law of international claims", New York 1915;
92. Dunn, "The protection of nationals: a study in the application of international law", Baltimore 1932.
93. Algeria, China, Thailand and Cambodia, see Ronzitti, "Rescuing nationals abroad through military coercion and intervention on grounds of humanity", Dordrecht 1985, p. 36.
94. Per Ambassador Scranton, S/PV.1941 (July 12, 1976) at 31; 31
95. SCOR, 1941 st mtg paras 31-32.
96. Romaina S/PV. 1942 at 22;
97. India S/PV. 1942 at 62;
98. Cuba S/PV. 1943 at 47.
99. France S/PV. 1939 at 88
100. and S/PV. 1942 at 28-31
101. Italy S/PV. 1943 at 36-38
102. Sweden S/PV. 1943 at 53
103. and S/PV. 1940 at 51-52
104. United Kingdom S/PV. 1940 at 48.
105. UN Doc. S/12139 and S/PV. 1943 (July 14th 1976) at 76.
106. Brownlie (note 79 i at p. 298)
107. Arend and Beck, "International law and the use of force: beyond the UN Charter Paradigm", 1993, pp. 138;
108. O'Brien, "Deterence and self-defense in counterterror operations", 30 Virginia Journal of International Law (1990) 421.
109. The Israeli attack on Beirut was unanimously condemned in resolution 262/1968;
110. its attack on Tunisia in 1985 was condemned 14-0-1 (Res. 573/1985);
111. Condemnation of the USA following the attacks Lybia, Afghanistan and Sudan was vetoed by France, UK, and USA. 780/1998.
112. Declaration on Friendly Relations, GA Res. 2625 XXV of 1970
113. and SC Res's 1189(1998) and 1373(2001).
114. Megret, " "War"? Legal semantics and the move to violence", EJIL online www.ejil.org/forum-WTC/ny-megret.html.
115. See fourth report of the UK Foreign Affairs Select Committee, www.parliament.thestationary-office.co.uk/pa/cm199900.
116. Yugoslavia v Belgium and others (provisional measures), CR99/15 pp 6-18, /ICJ.
117. Forster, J "Humanitarian Intervention" and International Humanitarian Law". 8/9th March 2000. www.icrc.org/icrceng.nsf, UN press release SG/SM/7632 (20 November 2000)
118. and Ryniker, "The ICRC's position on "humanitarian intervention' ", ICRC June 2001 Vol. 83 No. 842 pp. 527-532.
119. See, for example, SCR1199 of 1998.
120. Op cit note 116 pp. 1-6 and note 115, especially Brownlie, Littman, and Vaughan-Lowe.
121. See for example Cassese, "Ex iniuria ius oritur: Are we moving towards international legitimation of forcible humanitarian countermeasures in the world community?", ejtil 10, www.ejil.org/journal/Vol10/No1/com.html.
122. SC Res. 1199 of 1998
123. and SCR 1203 of 1998.
124. Nicaragua v. the United States I. C. J. Reports, 1986 14.
125. Op cit. Note 115, Minutes of evidence, Greenwood para 14.
126. British Foreign Office (Foreign Policy Document No. 148): British Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 57(1986).
127. Brownlie, in Cassese (ed), "The Current Legal Regulation of the Use of Force", Dordrecht, 1986, pp. 491-504, at 500.
128. Schachter, Michigan Law Review, Vol 82(1984) pp. 1620-46 at p. 1629.
129. G. A. Res. 3314 (xxix).
130. Gray, "International Law and the Use of Force", Oxford. 2000. p 219.
131. Weller (ed), "Regional Peace-keeping and International Enforcement: the Liberian Crisis", Cambridge, 1994. p. 121.
132. Rt Hon. Douglas Hurd MP, Foreign Secretary at the time, quoted in British Yearbook of International Law, Vol 63(1992) pp. 824-5.
133. Conforti, "The Law and Practice of the United Nations", The Hague, 1996, pp. 176-7.
134. Malanczuk (ed), "Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law", 7th rev. ed., London, 1997.
135. H.o. L., 16th November 1998, WA, col 140.
136. Uniting for peace Resolution, 3rd November 1950. G. A. Res. 337 A
137. in Doc. A/1775(1951).
138. Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Art. 17(2) of the Charter)
139. [1962] ICJ Rep 151.
140. See, for example, "Final Report by the Independent International Commission on Kosovo", chapter 6. www.kosovocommission.org/reports.
141. The moral argument is a wholly different matter to the legal one. If NATO's motives were, as they claim, purely humanitarian, one would be forgiven for sympathising with them. However, several commentators have questioned the veracity of NATO claims, see, for example, Brownlie at note 115, appendix 2 and at note 133, also Isbister, "Humanitarian intervention: ethical endeavours and the politics of interest, International Security Information Service briefing on humanitarian Intervention", No 1, May 2000. www.isisuk.demon. co.uk.
142. Op cit. note 116 at: Canada: CR 99/16
143. France: CR99/17
144. Germany: CR99/18
145. Italy: CR 99/19
146. The Netherlands: CR 99/20
147. Portugal: CR 99/21
148. Spain: CR 99/22
149. United Kingdom: CR 99/23
150. United States: CR 99/24.
151. S. C. Res. 1160 of 1998, paras 7 and 19.
152. S. C. Res. 1199 of 1998.
153. S. C. Res. 1204 of 1998.
154. Yugoslavia v Belgium at CR 99/15 p. 10.
155. See the report by the Kosovo Commission, note 163 and in particular Chapter 5; Brownlie, note 115 at para 121;
156. Bell, "Force, diplomacy and norms"
157. in Schnabel and Thakur (eds), "Kosovo and the challenge of humanitarian intervention", United Nations University Press, 2000.
158. I. L. C. yearbook, 1980, Vol. 11 (part Two), pp. 34-52.
159. In the European Journal of International Law, Vol. 10, No. 1(1999). www.ejil.org/journal/Vol10/No1.
160. In "Editorial Comments: NATO's Kosovo Intervention", AJIL, v. 93, no. 4, October 1999. www.asil.org/ajil/kosovo.htm.
161. "Anticipatory Humanitarian Intervention in Kosovo", op cit. note 182, p. 8.
162. Ambos, "Comment on 'NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects' ". EJIL Vol 10, No. 1. www.ejil.org/journal/Vol10/No1/coma.html.
163. Boyle, "Humanitarian Intervention and International Law", the Dr. Irma M. Parhad Lecture, University of Calgary, 13th March 2001. legalminds.lp. findlaw.com/list/forintlaw/msg00669.html.
164. See Reuter, "Droit international public", 6th ed, Paris 1983 (p 517);
165. Illich, in John Norton Moore (ed), "Law and Civil War in the Modern World", 1974 (pp. 229-51);
166. Reisman and McDougal, in Illich (ed) "Humanitarian Intervention and the United Nations", 1973 (pp. 866-76).
167. www.g77.org/Docs/Decl1999.html para 69.
168. For example, see Reisman, "Coersion and self-determination: construing Article 2(4) ", 78 AJIL (1984) 642;
169. Reisman, "Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law", 84 AJIL (1990) 866;
170. D'Amato, "The invasion of Panama was a lawful response to tyranny", 84 AJIL (1990) 516.
171. For commentary see Gray, "International law and the use of force", Oxford, 2000, p. 42.
172. SC 2491 st mtg, para. 53
173. 1983 UNYB 211.
174. Franck, "The emerging right to democratic governance", 86 AJIL (1992) 46;
175. Franck, "Fairness in international law and institutions", Oxford, 1995;
176. Crawford, "Democracy and international law", 44 BYIL (1993) 113;
177. Fox, "The right to political participation in international law", 17 Yale Journal of International Law (1992) 539.
178. Reisman, "Allocating competences to use coercion in the post-cold war world"
179. in Damrosch and Scheffer (eds), "Law and force in the new international order", Westview, 1991, p. 26 et seq, at p. 36.
180. S/PV 2902.
181. SC Res. 940 of 1991.
182. GA Res. 1514 of 1960.
183. For example, see Wilson, "International law and the use of force by national liberation movements", Clarendon, 1988. P.130
184. et seq; Abi-Saab, "Wars of national liberation and the Geneva conventions and Protocols", 165 RCADI (1979-IV) 363;
185. Grahl-Madsen, "Decolonization: The modern version of a just war", 22 German Yearbook of International Law (1979) 255;
186. Falk, "Intervention and national liberation"
187. in Bull (ed), d'Intervention in World Politics", Oxford Clarendon, 1984. p. 119 et seq.
188. GA Res. 2625 (XXV) of 1970.
189. GA Res. 3314 (XXIX) of 1974.
190. See 1974 UNYB 845 for an account of the debate on this point.
191. For example, see SC Res's. 386, 392, 428, 445.
192. For example, see GA Res's. 3070 and 39/72.
193. Korman, "The right of conquest", Clarendon, 1996. p. 267 et seq.
194. Franck, "The stealing of the Sahara", 70 AJIL (1976) 694.
195. On the last point, see Supreme Court of Canada, Reference re: Succession of Qubec, 37 ILM (1998) 1340, and in particular, 1372.
196. December 20, 1945. Official Journal of the Control Council No. 3(1946) at 50.
197. GA Res. 95(1) of 1946.
198. Yearbook of the ILC, 1950 Vol. II pp. 374 et seq.
199. See Antonopoulos, "Whatever happened to crimes against peace?", Journal of Conflict and Security Law (2001), Vol. 6 No. 1 pp. 33-62, for a review of the arguments.
200. IMT Nuremberg, Judgment (1946) 1 I. M. T. 171, at 219-223.
201. For example, Ratner, "Crimes against peace", in Gutman and Rieff (eds), "Crimes of war", Norton 1999, p. 109 et seq.;
202. Bassiouni, "Historical development of prosecuting crimes against peace", in Bassiouni (ed), "International criminal law, Vol. III, Enforcement", Kluwer 1998, p. 27.
203. Röling and Ruter, "The Tokyo judgment: The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) 29 April 1946-12 November 1948", Amsterdam University Press, 1977.
204. For example, Ferencz, "Defining international aggression: The search for World Peace", Oceana 1975, Vol. II p. 43 et seq;
205. Report of the ILC on its 46th session, in Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 1994 Vol. II, part 2 p. 23.
206. United States of America v von Weizsaecker and Others, U. S. G. P. O. xii, 281.
207. UN doc. SA/9619.
208. UN Spec. Rep. 1471 at 4.
209. UN doc. A/1858(1951), p. 11.
210. PNICC/2001/L.3/Rev. 1 Annex II p. 13 Option 1, variation 1.
211. PCNICC/2002/WGCA/RT. 1.
212. Rome Statute 1998, Article 3.
213. United States Of America v von Leeb and Others 15 Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases 380(1948).
214. United States of America v Krauch and Others 15 Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases 669(1948).
215. Rome Statute 1998, Article 30.
216. ILC commentary to Article 16 of the Final Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, 1996, para 3.
217. Nuremberg Judgement, pp. 84, 129-131 and 144-146.
218. Coronally v General Construction Company 269 US 385, 391(1926).
219. Murphy, Commentaries on the Draft Code of Crimes, 11 Nouvelles Etudes Penales 209(1993).