To expand or not to expand? Territory, generic fascism and the quest for an 'ideal fatherland'

Journal of Contemporary History

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2003, Pages

  Kallis, Aristotle A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34248062162     PISSN: 00220094     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0022009403038002132     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. R. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London and New York 1994),
2. and idem, International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus (London 1998);
3. R. Eatwell, 'Towards a New Model of Generic Fascism', Journal of Theoretical Politics, vol. 4 (1992), 161-94;
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5. R. Eatwell, Fascism: A History (London 1995).
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10. R.O. Paxton, 'The Five Stages of Fascism', Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), 1-23;
11. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, op. cit., 221ff.
12. See the classic study of M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany, 1933-1945 (Cambridge 1991).
13. For Italy see M. Michaelis, Mussolini and the Jews. German-Italian Relations and the Jewish Question in Italy 1922-1945 (Oxford 1978);
14. J. Steinberg, All or Nothing. The Axis and the Holocaust, 1941-42 (London 1990).
15. M. Knox, Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941. Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War (Cambridge 1982);
16. idem, 'Conquest, Domestic and Foreign, in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany', Journal of Modern History, 56 (1984), 1-57;
17. A. Kallis, Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany 1922-1945 (London 2000).
18. and idem, 'The Concept of Fascism' in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust (eds), Who Were the Fascists?, op. cit., 14-25.
19. See the various contributions on this issue in S. Berger, M. Donovan and K. Passmore (eds), Writing National Histories. Western Europe since 1800 (London 1999), Parts 4-7.
20. For fascism as a 'parenthesis' in national history see, amongst others, R.G. Collingwood, 'Fascism and Nazism', Philosophy, 15 (1940), 170ff;
21. B. Croce, Per La nuova vita dell'Italia. Scritti e discorsi 1943-44 (Naples 1944), 13ff.
22. For a general assessment of this analysis of fascism see R. Kühnl, 'Contemporary Approaches to Fascism: A Survey of Paradigms' in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust (eds), Who Were the Fascists?, op. cit., 26-51;
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25. idem, Germany's Aims in the First World War (New York 1967);
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27. idem, From Kaiserreich to Third Reich (London 1979).
28. For a discussion of the problems involved in the 'Fischer controversy' see J.A. Moses, The Politics of Illusion. The Fischer Controversy in German Historiography (London 1975);
29. W.J. Mommsen, 'The Debate on German War Aims', Journal of Contemporary History, 1, 3 (July 1966), 47-72.
30. Z. Sternhell, Neither Right nor Left. Fascist Ideology in France (Berkeley and Los Angeles 1986).
31. For an analysis of the 'Sternhell controversy' see R. Wolf, 'French Fascism, Both Right and Left: Reflections on the Sternhell Controversy', Journal of Modern History, 63 (1991), 91-8.
32. Cf. G. Ritter, The Sword and the Scepter. The Problem of Militarism in Germany (Coral Gables, FL 1969-1973), 4 vols;
33. R. Vivarelli, Il dopoguerra in Italia e l'avvento del fascismo (1918-1922), vol. 1: Dalla fine della guerra all'impresa di Fiume (Naples 1967).
34. See the excellent anthology of interwar Marxist writings on fascism in D. Beetham, Marxists in Face of Fascism (Manchester 1983);
35. For more sophisticated Marxist analyses of fascism see N. Poulantzas, Fascism and Dictatorship: The Third International and the Problem of Fascism (London 1974);
36. and M. Kitchen, Fascism (London 1976).
37. G.L. Mosse, The Crisis of German Ideology (London 1966);
38. A. Hamilton, The Appeal of Fascism. A Study of Intellectuals and Fascism 1919-1945 (London 1971);
39. W.L. Adamson, Avant-Garde Florence: From Modernism to Fascism (Cambridge, MA 1993);
40. R.O. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940-1944 (New York 1972).
41. G.L. Mosse, 'Towards a General Theory of Fascism' in Mosse (ed.), International Fascism. New Thoughts and New Approaches (London and Beverly Hills 1979), 1-41.
42. Mosse, 'Towards a General Theory of Fascism', op. cit., chap. 2.
43. G.L. Mosse, 'Two World Wars and the Myth of the War Experience', Journal of Contemporary History, 21, 4 (October 1986), 491-514.
44. A. Kallis, Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, 1922-1945 (London 2000).
45. For a detailed analysis of fascist elitism see Kallis, Fascist Ideology, op. cit., 40-7.
46. See the relevant excerpts in the excellent anthology of primary sources by R. Griffin (ed.), Fascism (Oxford and New York 1995).
47. For Mosley's movement in particular see D.S. Lewis, Illusions of Grandeur: Mosley, Fascism and British Society, 1931-81 (Manchester 1987);
48. K. Lunn and R.C. Thurlow (eds), British Fascism. Essays on the Radical Right in Inter-War Britain (New York 1980);
49. and R. Skidelsky, Oswald Mosley (London 1975).
50. P. Weindling, 'Understanding Nazi Racism: Precursors and Perpetrators' in M. Burleigh (ed.), Confronting the Nazi Past. New Debates on Modern German History (London 1996), 66-83;
51. D. Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust (London 1996), 27-128.
52. A. Vincent, Modern Political Ideologies (Oxford 1992), 158ff;
53. B. Mussolini, 'The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism' in Oakeshott (ed.), op. cit., 164-79.
54. th of August] (Athens 1975, 2nd edn);
55. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, op. cit.;
56. Payne, History of Facism, op. cit., 317-20;
57. D. Close, 'Conservatism, Authoritarianism and Fascism in Greece, 1915-45' in M. Blinkhorn (ed.), Fascists and Conservatives. The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe (London 1990), 200-17;
58. Y. Andricopoulos, 'The Power Base of Greek Authoritarianism' in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust (eds), Who Were the Fascists?, op. cit., 568-84.
59. Z. Barbu, 'Psycho-Historical and Sociological Perspectives on the Iron Guard, the Fascist Movement of Romania' in Who Were the Fascists?, op. cit., 382-7;
60. and idem, 'Romania' in S. Woolf (ed.), Fascism in Europe (London 1968), 146-66;
61. E. Weber, 'Romania', in H. Rogger and E. Weber (eds), The European Right. A Historical Profile (London 1965), 517ff;
62. B. Vago, 'Fascism in Eastern Europe', in Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader's Guide, op. cit., 217-18, 222-3;
63. S. Fischer-Galati, 'Fascism in Romania' in F. Sugar (ed.), Native Fascism in the Successor States, 1918-1945 (Santa Barbara, CA 1971), 112-22;
64. E. Weber, 'The Men of the Archangel' in G.L. Mosse (ed.), International Fascism: New Thoughts and New Approaches (London and Beverly Hills 1979), 328ff.
65. E. Weber, Varieties of Fascism (Princeton, NJ 1964), 96-8,
66. and idem, 'Romania', op. cit., 530-1;
67. E. Turczynski, 'The Background to Romanian Fascism' in Sugar (ed.), op. cit., 101-11.
68. Kallis, 'Regime-variant of Fascism', op. cit., 91-6.
69. G. Schubert, Anfänge nationalsozialistischer Aussenpolitik (Cologne 1961).
70. For 'Lebensraum' see W.D. Smith, The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism (Oxford 1986);
71. E. Gentile, Le origini dell'ideologia fascista, 1918-1925 (Rome and Bari 1975), 396ff;
72. Knox, 'Conquest, Domestic and Foreign', op. cit.;
73. M. Isnenghi, 'Il mito di potenza' in A. Del Boca, M. Legnani and M.C. Rossi (eds), Il regime fascista. Storia e storiografia (Rome and Bari 1995), 144ff.
74. G. Barany, 'The Dragon's Teeth: The Roots of Hungarian Fascism' in Sugar (ed.), op. cit., 78ff;
75. Payne, History of Fascism, op. cit., 272-3;
76. I. Deak, 'Hungary' in European Right, op. cit., 388-94;
77. J. Erös, 'Hungary' in Woolf (ed.), op. cit., esp. 135ff.
78. On the ideology of the Verdinaso see J. Stengers, 'Belgium' in European Right, op. cit., 150-2;
79. Weber, Varieties, op. cit., 122-9;
80. G. Carpinelli, 'Belgium' in Woolf (ed.), op. cit., 283-306, esp. 291-2;
81. S. Djordjevic, 'Fascism in Yugoslavia: 1918-1941' in Sugar (ed.), op. cit., 125-34;
82. W. Wippermann, Europäischer Faschismus im Vergleich, 1922-1982 (Frankfurt am Main 1983),
83. Y. Jellinek, 'Clergy and Fascism: The Hlinka Party in Slovakia and the Croat Ustasha Movement' in Who Were the Fascists?, op. cit., 367-78;
84. On the 'Croat Plan' and Italy's active involvement in it see J.J. Sadkovich, Italian Support for Croat Separatism, 1927-1937 (New York 1987);
85. E.M. Robertson, Mussolini as Empire-Builder. Europe and Africa, 1932-36 (London and Basingstoke 1977), 84-5;
86. M. Knox, 'Il fascismo e La politica estera italiana' in R.J.B. Bosworth and S. Romano (eds), La politica estera italiana (1860-1985) (Bologna 1991), 317ff.
87. J. Havranek, 'Fascism in Czechoslovakia' and J.F. Zacek, 'Czechoslovak Fascisms', both in Sugar (ed.), op. cit., 51-2 and 59-60 respectively;
88. Jellinek, 'Clergy and Fascism', op. cit.,
89. and idem, The Parish Republic: Hlinka's Slovak People's Party, 1939-1945 (Boulder, CO 1976).
90. K.R. Stadler, 'Austria' in Woolf (ed.), op. cit., 93-116;
91. L. Jedlicka, 'The Austrian Heimwehr', in Mosse (ed.), International Fascism, op. cit., 223-40;
92. A. Whiteside, 'Austria' in European Right, op. cit., 329ff;
93. M. Kitchen, The Coming of Austrian Fascism (London 1980), chaps 2-3;
94. F.L. Carsten, Fascist Movements in Austria from Schönerer to Hitler (London 1977).
95. B.M. Jankovic, The Balkans in International Relations (Basingstoke and London 1988), 149ff;
96. Jankovic, op. cit., 157-61;
97. Woolf (ed.), Fascism in Europe, op. cit.;
98. F.L. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism (London 1967);
99. Wippermann, Faschismus, op. cit.;
100. Laqueur (ed.), Fascism: A Reader's Guide, op. cit.;
101. R. Thurlow, Fascism in Britain (Oxford 1987);
102. J.R. Jones, 'England' in European Right, op. cit., 64-9.
103. On the issue of continuity between liberal and fascist foreign policy in Italy see R.J.B. Bosworth, 'Italian Foreign Policy and its Historiography' in R.J.B. Bosworth and G. Rizzo (eds), Altro Polo. Intellectuals and their Ideas in Contemporary Italy (Sydney 1983), 52-96;
104. and idem, The Italian Dictatorship. Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of Mussolini and Fascism (London and New York 1998), chap. 4.
105. On the Corfu incident see J. Barros, The Corfu Incident of 1923 (Princeton, NJ 1966);
106. A. Cassels, Mussolini's Early Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ 1970);
107. On the support for the Ethiopian campaign by élite groups and public opinion see L'opinione degli italiani sotto il regime, 1929-1943 (Rome and Bari 1991), 193-7;
108. R. De Felice, Mussolini il duce, vol. 1: Gli anni del consenso, 1919-1936 (Turin 1968), 758ff;
109. For the attitude of military and diplomatic élites to expansion see K.-J. Müller, The Army, Politics and Society in Germany, 1933-45. Studies in the Army's Relation to Nazism (Manchester 1987);
110. W. Deist, The Wehrmacht and German Rearmament (London and Basingstoke 1981);
111. P. Seabury, The Wilhelmstrasse. A Study of German Diplomats under the Nazi Regime (Berkeley, CA 1954).
112. K.-J. Müller, 'The Structure and Nature of the National Conservative Opposition in Germany up to 1940' in H.W. Koch (ed.), Aspects of the Third Reich (London 1985), 151ff;
113. and idem, 'The German Military Opposition before the Second World War' in W.J. Mommsen and L. Kettenacker (eds), The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement (London 1983), 65-75.
114. Knox, 'Italy and Germany', op. cit., 7-52;
115. A. Kallis, 'Expansionism in Post-Unification Italy and Germany until the First World War: On the Ideological Origins of Fascist Expansionism', European History Quarterly, 28 (1998), 435-62;
116. J. Hiden and J. Farquharson, Explaining Hitler's Germany (Totowa, NJ 1983), 158ff;
117. cf. G. Eley, From Unification to Nazism. Reinterpreting the German Past (Boston, London and Sydney 1986), 61-84.
118. See also I. Duchacek, The Territorial Dimensions of Politics Within, Among and Across Nations (Boulder, CO and London 1986), 30ff.
119. D.L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley, CA, Los Angeles, CA and London 1985), 229-88;
120. H.W.V. Temperley (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, vol. IV (London 1921), chap. 5;
121. I.J. Lederer, Yugoslavia at the Paris Peace Conference. A Study in Frontiermaking (New Haven, CT 1963).
122. See also N. Rich, Hitler's War Aims, vol. 1: Ideology, the Nazi State and the Course of Expansion (London 1973), chap. 1;
123. E. Gentile, Il culto del littorio. La sacralizzazione della politica nell'Italia fascista (Rome and Bari 1993), 146-54;
124. R. Visser, 'Fascist Doctrine and the Cult of Romanità', Journal of Contemporary History, 27 (1992), 5-22.
125. A. Liakos, I Italiki Enopiisi kai I Megali Idea [The Italian Unification and the Megali Idea] (Athens 1984);
126. G.B. Leon, Greece and the Great Powers, 1914-1917 (Thessaloniki 1970), 1, 122;
127. J.V. Kofas, Authoritarianism in Greece: The Metaxas Regime (Boulder, CO 1983), 61ff.
128. G. Ranki, 'The Problem of Fascism in Hungary' in Sugar (ed.), op. cit., 67-8.
129. R.J. Rath, 'Authoritarian Austria' in Sugar (ed.), op. cit., 27ff;
130. Whiteside, op. cit., 329ff.
131. Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, op. cit., 204-11;
132. Stengers, op. cit., 150-65.
133. I. Banac, 'Nationalism in Serbia' in G.G. Özdogan and K. Saybasih (eds), Balkans: A Mirror of the New International Order (Istanbul 1983), 133-52;
134. B. Jelavich, History of the Balkans, vol. I (Cambridge 1983), 238-46;
135. M. Glenny, The Balkans, 1804-1999: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers (London 1999).
136. A.J. Foster, 'Britain and East Central Europe, 1918-1948' in P. Stirk (ed.), Mitteleuropa. History and Prospects (Edinburgh 1994), 112-15.
137. Von Strandmann, 'Imperialism and Revisionism in Interwar Germany', op. cit., 93ff;
138. A.J. De Grand, The Italian Nationalist Association and the Rise of Fascism in Italy (Lincoln and London 1978), 105ff;
139. F. Gaeta, 'L'Associazione Nazionalista Italiana' in E. Gentile (ed.), L'Italia giolittiana. La storia e La critica (Rome and Bari 1977), 253-68.
140. Alan Sharp, The Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking in Paris, 1919 (Basingstoke 1991), 104-6.
141. On the settlement of the differences between Germany and the Polish delegation see K. Lundgreen-Nielsen, The Polish Issue at the Paris Peace Conference. A Study of the Policies of the Great Powers and the Poles, 1918-1919 (Odensee 1979).
142. K.S. Stadler, The Birth of the Austrian Republic, 1918-1921 (Leyden 1968);
143. H.C. Meyer, Mitteleuropa in German Thought and Action, 1815-1945 (The Hague 1955), 291-310;
144. A.D. Low, The Anschluss Movement 1918-1919 and the Paris Peace Conference (Philadelphia 1974).
145. H.I. Nelson, Land and Power. British and Allied Policy on Germany's Frontiers, 1916-1919 (London 1963), 272-81.
146. F.G. Campbell, 'The Struggle for Upper Silesia, 1919-1922', Journal of Modern History, 42 (1970), 361-85.
147. R. Clogg, A Concise History of Greece (Cambridge 1999), 100ff;
148. K. Svolopoulos, H Elliniki Exoteriki Politiki, 1900-1945 [Greek Foreign Policy, 1900-1945] (Athens 1992), 256ff;
149. Kofas, op. cit., 168-204;
150. C.M. Woodhouse, Modern Greece: A Short History (London 1998, 6th edn), 233ff.
151. Weber, 'The Men of the Archangel', op. cit., 328ff;
152. Low, op. cit., esp. 375ff.
153. Rath, op. cit., 24-36;
154. Temperley, op. cit., IV, 278-95.
155. C.W. Schum, 'The Dolfuss-Schuschnigg Regime: Fascist or Authoritarian' in Larsen, Hagtvet and Myklebust (eds), Who Were the Fascists?, op. cit., 249-56.