Urban Deindustrialization and Local Public Policy: Industrial Renewal in Philadelphia, 1953–1976

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 66-98

  Mckee, Guian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34248055124     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jph.2004.0004     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, 1996), 327.
2. Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York, 1983)
3. John H. Mollenkopf, The Contested City (Princeton, 1983)
4. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, 1985)
5. Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore, 1990)
6. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis;
7. Jefferson R. Cowie, Capital Moves: RCAs Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor (Ithaca, 1999).
8. Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds. The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989)
9. Margaret Weir, Politics and Jobs: The Boundaries of Employment Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1992)
10. Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York, 1995).
11. Kirk R. Petshek, The Challenge of Urban Reform: Policies and Programs in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1973)
12. William W. Cutler, III, “The Persistent Dualism: Centralization and Decentralization in Philadelphia, 1854-1975,” in The Divided Metropolis: Social and Spatial Dimensions of Philadelphia, 1800-1975, ed. Cutler and Howard Gillette Jr. (Westport, Conn. 1980), 249-84;
13. John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia, 1987)
14. Carolyn Teich Adams, The Politics of Capital Investment: The Case of Philadelphia (Albany, N.Y. 1988)
15. Carolyn Adams, David Bartelt, David Elesh, Ira Goldstein, Nancy Kleniewski, and William Yancey, Philadelphia: Neighbor hoods, Division, and Conflict in a Postindustrial City (Philadelphia, 1991).
16. Walter M. Phillips, “A Proposal for Using City-Owned Land in Strengthening Philadelphia's Industrial Base,” 19 December 1953, and
17. “Recommended Method for Assuring Availability of Land for Industrial Development in Philadelphia,” 3 June 1954
18. Walter M. Phillips Papers, Acc. 527, Box 17, F: Industrial Development Memos, 1953-54, Temple University Urban Archives [TUUA]
19. Phillips, “A Program for Industrial Land Development Within the Corporate Limits of Philadelphia,” 20 September 1954, Mayor's Correspondence 1956, RG 60-2.5, Box A- 490, F: Industrial Land Development, City of Philadelphia, Department of Records, City Archives.
20. Philadelphia City Planning Commission [CPC], Planning Study No. 2: Economic Base Study of the Philadelphia Area (Philadelphia, August 1949), 34.
21. Also, Urban Land Institute [ULI], Technical Bulletin No. 19: Planned Industrial Districts, Their Organization and Development (Washington, D.C. 1952)
22. Richard Harris, Unplanned Suburbs: Toronto's American Tragedy, 1900-1950 (Baltimore, 1996), 51-85.
23. Phillips, “A Proposal for Using City-Owned Land in Strengthening Philadelphia's Industrial Base,” 2.
24. The Commerce Department's focus on plant space and design received social scientific validation during the mid-1950s when an expansive investigation by the University of Pennsylvania's Institute of Urban Studies concluded that “space needs themselves are the most important single factor causing movement and on-site expansion.” Institute for Urban Studies, University of Pennsylvania [IUS], Industrial Land and Facilities for Philadelphia: A Report to the Philadelphia City Planning Commission (Philadelphia, 1956), 42, 70-71.
25. Phillips, “A Program for Industrial Land Development Within the Corporate Limits of Philadelphia,” 1-5, 8-9;
26. Idem, “A Proposal for Using City-Owned Land in Strengthening Philadelphia's Industrial Base,” 2–4;
27. Idem, “Recommended Method for Assuring Availability of Land for Industrial Development in Philadelphia,” 2, 6;
28. Petshek, The Challenge of Urban Reform, 38.
29. Benjamin H. Stevens, Carolyn A. Brackett, and Robert E. Coughlin, An Investigation of Location Factors Influencing the Economy of the Philadelphia Region;
30. RSRI Discussion Paper No. 12 (Philadelphia, March 1967)
31. Bruce Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938—1980 (New York, 1991)
32. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis;
33. Cowie, Capital Moves.
34. “Chronology of Industrial Development Program Activities,” December 1955, Phillips Papers, Acc. 527, Box 17, F: Industrial Land Documents, TUUA, 6-18;
35. Frederic R. Mann, “Activity Report[s] to the Mayor,” 18-31 August, 1-14 September, 15-28 September, 29 September-26 October, 24 November-26 December 1957, MD-FC, RG 61.2, Box A-708, F: Confidential-Weekly Reports, City Representative's Office, 1957, City Archives; Chamber of Commerce, “Minutes of Executive Committee Meeting,” 4 November 1957, 1-2;
36. PIDC, “Minutes of Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation Organizational Meeting of Board of Directors,” 26 February 1958, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC, TUUA, 4;
37. Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia, “Executive Committee Meeting,” 7 October 1957
38. Petshek Papers, Executive Committee Meeting;
39. Chamber, “Board of Director's Meeting,” 3 and 16 December 1957
40. Petshek Papers, Board of Director's Meeting;
41. PIDC, “PIDC Looks Back, Looks Ahead” [1961 Annual Report], Free Library of Philadelphia, Government Documents Collection [GDC], Cities P53-1320 1961, 5-6.
42. PIDC, “Minutes of Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation Organizational Meeting,” 4–5;
43. “Wm. F. Kelly Named Head of City Development Corp.” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 26 February 1958.
44. [Keeton Arnett], “Executive Vice President's Report to Board of Directors,” 20 May 1963, Chamber of Commerce Loose Files, Box: 1962-63 A-G, F: Board of Directors, May 1963, Historical Society of Pennsylvania (HSP), 3-4;
45. Chamber of Commerce Advisory Committee to Commission on Human Relations, “Project No. CI-5,” 1962-1963
46. Keeton Arnett, [retirement speech], [June] 1964, Chamber of Commerce Loose Files, Box: 1963-64 A-F, F: Arnett, Keeton; Farewell Speech 1964, HSP, 1.
47. Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia, Greater Philadelphia Facts: Business and Civic Statistics, Edition of 1966 (Philadelphia, 1966), 6;
48. Philip Scranton and Walter Licht, Work Sights: Industrial Philadelphia, 1890—1950 (Philadelphia, 1986)
49. Licht, Getting Work: Philadelphia, 1840—1950 (Philadelphia, 1992), 3-16.
50. This policy reflected Graves's deliberate decision to emphasize the retention of existing Philadelphia firms rather than the attraction of outside companies. Mayor's Economic Advisory Committee [MEAC], “Statement of Criteria for Indus- GUIAN MCKEE 93 trial Park Development at the North Philadelphia Airport,” 9 December 1960, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: E.A.C.
51. MEAC, “Summary of Discussion: Private Financing for Redevelopment,” 20 November 1958, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: EAC, TUUA, 2;
52. Graves, “Memo to PIDC board of directors; Subject: Financing the Proposed Industrial Parks for Small Companies,” 18 March 1960, DC- ID Files
53. see Alberta M. Sbragia, Debt Wish: Entrepreneurial Cities, U.S. Federalism, and Economic Development (Pittsburgh, 1996), 163— 79;
54. Matthew R. Marlin, “Industrial Development Bonds at 50: A Golden Anniversary Review,” Economic Development Quarterly 1, no. 4 (November 1987): 391—410.
55. Lester W. Utter, “Memo to Walter Stein, re: Ruling T:R:I-FCD-5, Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation,” 15 July 1959, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5192, F: Internal Revenue Service ‘67, City Archives;
56. Graves, “Memo to PIDC board of directors,” 3–4;
57. PIDC bore no liability at any stage of the transaction because both the assets of the firm and the building itself were offered as collateral in case of default. PIDC transactions that involved city-owned land relied on the Industrial Land Bank and Industrial Redevelopment Fund (the “revolving fund”). The fund reimbursed the city for all infrastructure costs in “a sum equal to the amount which would have been assessed for such improvements if the land had been privately owned at the time the improvements were made” (the fund would later be reimbursed for these costs from the proceeds of the land sale). The city financed the remaining, nonassessable costs through its capital improvement budget. In combination with the use of private financing, this system limited the city's expenses to these nonassessable infrastructure costs, plus debt service on the bonds used to finance the revolving fund and city contributions to PIDC's operating budget. Michael L. Strong, “1961—1966 Capital Program; Philadelphia Department of Commerce; Industrial Land Development,” July 1960, CCCP Records, Urb 10/XI, Box 482, F: 1961—66 Capital Program Analysis—Industrial Land Development, 4;
58. PIDC, “Outline of Typical Industrial Build-Lease Project with the Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation as Owner, Lessor, and Mortgagor,” n.d. [1959-1961], Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: P.I.D.C. TUUA;
59. Robert Morrow Mitchell, “Industrial Development Activities in the City of Philadelphia: An Analysis of the Intergovernmental Relationships” (M.A. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1968), 12—15.
60. This classification is derived from PIDC, “Analysis of Real Property Transactions Financed Through PIDC,” [1975]
61. PIDC, “PIDC/1968—Ten Years of Progress in Philadelphia [annual report],” GPC, Box 509-8, TUUA, [2,5]
62. “Little Ground Left at Phila. Industrial Park,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 3 May 1970, 9;
63. PIDC, “Red Lion Industrial District [promotional pamphlet], [1976], GPC, Box 555-11, TUUA, 1–2;
64. PIDC, “Philadelphia Industrial Complex [promotional pamphlet], n.d. [1976], GPC, Box 555-13, TUUA, 1-2;
65. PIDC, “fifteen years of productive growth: annual report 1972,” Greater Philadelphia Movement [GPM] Records, Acc. 294, Box 6A, F: Garment Industry Development, TUUA, [6,14]
66. CPC, Issue Paper—Industrial Philadelphia: A Study of Industrial Land Use (Philadelphia, 1990), 6, 16-17, 24.
67. PIDC, “Now There Are 6 PIDC Industrial Districts for Your New Plants in Philadelphia,” [1962], Mayor's Files 1962, RG 60-2.5, Box A-6337, F: Industrial Development Corp. City Archives;
68. Eastwick Project Area Committee [EPAC], “Minutes of the PAC Planning Committee,” 25 January 1973, EPAC Records, Acc. 870, Box 1, F: PAC Info, TUUA, 1;
69. PIDC, “fifteen years of productive growth: annual report 1972”
70. CPC, Review of the Eastwick Urban Renewal Plan (Philadelphia, April 1982), 14. In the Eastwick and Franklin-Callowhill areas, PIDC built new industrial facilities on land previously cleared through the RA's federally funded urban renewal program. In general, however, PIDC did not employ urban renewal clearance to obtain additional land or funding for industrial renewal. PIDC officials initially considered such a strategy, but concluded that the technique would be too slow to meet the needs of industrial customers and that, in the case of projects involving only one firm, PIDC projects might not meet urban renewal's public purpose standards.
71. Harold Wise, “Community Renewal Program, City of Philadelphia: Industrial Renewal—Requirements and Outlook for Philadelphia,” December 1964, CPC Files, RG 161.5, Box A-3605, F: CRP-Industrial Renewal, City Archives, 13- 26, 39-40;
72. Jan Staebler, interview by Petshek, transcript, Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 5, F: [Interviews], TUUA, 1, 9-11. St. Louis, Cincinnati, Buffalo, and Cleveland had mixed success with industrial renewal programs that relied on urban renewal clearance. Maire Murphy, “National Policy, Local Initiatives, and Industrial Development in America 's ‘Rustbelt’: Revitalizing Mill Cr eek Valley in St. Louis City, 1950s-1970s,” paper presented at the Policy History Conference, June 2002, Clayton, Missouri; Teaford, Rough Road to Renaissance, 149-50, 156-57.
73. Program and Budget Committee, “Promoting Philadelphia Industrially: A Program of the Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation,” received 11 June 1958, Vertical Files, Van Pelt Library, University of Pennsylvania, 1-2;
74. PIDC, “Now There Are 6 PIDC Industrial Districts,” 2;
75. PIDC, “1965/PIDC's #x0024;100 Million Milestone Year [annual report],” Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC, TUUA, 3.
76. PIDC, “Now There Are 6 PIDC Industrial Districts,” 2;
77. Joseph M. Guess, “Firm Decides to Stay in City; PIDC Helps Finance New Drug Plant,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 23 February 1960;
78. PIDC, “Taken from the Minutes of the Meeting of Members of the PIDC,” 25 May 1960, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5201, F: Frank's Beverages ‘66, City Archives;
79. PIDC, “Agenda and Minutes, Meeting of the executive committee,” 22 October 1963 and 14 July 1964, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5201, F: Macke Variety Vending ‘65, City Archives;
80. PIDC, “1965/PIDC's #x0024;100 Million Milestone Year,” 3.
81. Nearly half of the acreage in the Riverside project remained undeveloped because of a poorly designed contract with a private development consortium, as well as an overestimation of the demand for riverfront industrial sites. PIDC Special Riverside Committee, “To: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation executive committee; Subject: Meeting with Riverside Industrial Center Developers,” 2 February 1965, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A-5195, F: Riverside Industrial Park ’62-’65, City Archives;
82. “Minutes of the Board of Directors Meeting of PIDC,” 21 June 1966, DC-ID Files
83. Report to the Philadelphia City Planning Commission (January 1960), 159–66.
84. PIDC, “fifteen years of productive growth; annual report 1972,” 8.
85. For specific data on residential segregation and lending in Philadelphia, see David W. Bartelt, “Housing the ‘Underclass,’” in The Underclass Debate: Views from History, ed. Michael B. Katz (Princeton, 1993), 118-57, and esp. 125-37.
86. Lenora E. Berson, Case Study of a Riot: The Philadelphia Story (New York, 1966)
87. S. A. Paolantonio, Frank Rizzo: The Last Big Man in Big City America (Philadelphia, 1993)
88. Countryman, “Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971” (Ph.D. diss. Duke University, 1998), 301-10, 354-71.
89. Walter D’Alessio, “Memo To: Honorable Frank L. Rizzo, Mayor; Subject: 1972 Activity,” 10 January 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, RG 60-2.6, Box A-3426, F: PIDC, City Archives, 2;
90. PIDC, 1971: New Directions for PIDC in Philadelphia, Free Library of Philadelphia, GDC, Cities P53-1320 1971, 5.
91. The remaining transactions could not be identified from the records consulted; because of the range of sources used in compilation of the database, there does not appear to be any systematic bias in the type of transactions that are missing. For real estate transaction listings, see Philadelphia Bulletin Clipping Files, TUUA, F: Philadelphia Industrial Development Corporation [clippings filed in annual envelopes]. The PIDC staff compiled transaction descriptions for board and executive committee meetings; see DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Boxes A-5201 and A-5202: Firms Assisted by PIDC, 1965-68, City Archives; Mayor's Files and Correspondence, RG 60-2.4 and RG 60-2.5, PIDC and industrial development annual files, 1959-70, City Archives. Also, PIDC, “PIDC Looks Back, Looks Ahead”
92. PIDC, “1963: Another Headline Year for PIDC” [Annual Report], Petshek Papers, Acc. 202, Box 4, F: PIDC;
93. PIDC, “1965/PIDC's #x0024;100 Million Milestone Year” [annual report]
94. PIDC, “1967: PIDC's Big Year in New Plant Construction” [annual report], GPC, Box 509-6, TUUA;
95. PIDC, “PIDC/1968—Ten Years of Progress in Philadelphia”
96. PIDC, “Over 100 new industrial plants for Philadelphia … created by an allcommunity effort,” n.d. [1967], GPC, Box 871-5, TUUA;
97. Dalton Corporation, 1970 Dalton's Greater Philadelphia Industrial Dir ectory (Philadelphia, 1970)
98. Dalton's Directory, Dalton's Directory, business and industry 1980 (Haverford, Pa. 1980)
99. Dalton's Directory, 1990 Dalton's Philadelphia Metr opolitan Directory Business/Industry Philadelphia/Suburbs South Jersey/Delaware (Philadelphia, 1990)
100. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (various departments), Industrial Directory of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 1956, 1962, 1968, 1972, 1975, 1980 (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, semiannual).
101. For city-wide data on firm size, Chamber of Commerce of Greater Philadelphia, Greater Philadelphia Facts: Business and Civic Statistics, Edition of 1966 (Philadelphia, 1966), 16.
102. Edward Schwartz, “Economic Development as If Neighborhood Mattered,” in Community and Capital in Conflict: Plant Closings and Job Loss, ed. John C. Raines, Lenora E. Berson, and David McI. Gracie (Philadelphia, 1982), 272-73 (emphasis in original).
103. PIDC, “Analysis of Real Property Transactions Financed Through PIDC,” [1975], 14
104. PIDC, “material from review of PIDC operations,” n.d [1975], GPP Records, Acc. 612, Box 12, F: PIDC Annual Report, TUUA, 35.
105. During the 1970s (after the period covered by this analysis), PIDC began a series of projects designed to preserve the apparel industry. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufacturers 1963 Volume III, Area Statistics [Pennsylvania] (Washington, D.C. 1966), 35;
106. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Business, 1963 Volume 5, Wholesale Trade—Area Statistics [Pennsylvania] (Washington, D.C. 1966), 27;
107. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Manufacturers, Geographic Area Series—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C. May 1985), PA 90–91;
108. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Wholesale Trade—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C.: GPO, November 1984), PA 42–43.
109. PIDC and Philadelphia City Planning Commission (CPC), Survey of Industry 1975 (Philadelphia, [1975]), 39, 108–9. For neighborhood racial composition, CPC, Population Characteristics; 1960 and 1970 Philadelphia Census Tracts (Philadelphia, July 1972), 12-13.
110. David W. Bartelt, “Housing the ‘Underclass,’” 118–57;
111. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 195–218, 231-45.
112. West Philadelphia, another section with a majority black population and continuing racial turnover, provided a partial exception to the pattern; it had sixteen move-ins or expansions compared to twenty losses. This was the highest net negative impact anywhere in the city. 45. IUS, Industrial Land and Facilities for Philadelphia, 147, 286. 46. Joel Rast, Remaking Chicago: The Political Origins of Urban Industrial Change (DeKalb, Ill. 1999).
113. Leon H. Sullivan, Build Brother Build (Philadelphia, 1969), 66-84;
114. Hannah Lees, “The Not-Buying Power of Philadelphia's Negroes,” The Reporter 24, no. 10 (11 May 1961): 33-34.
115. “Jim Crow's Sweetheart Contract,” Greater Philadelphia Magazine, February 1963;
116. Matthew J. Countryman, “Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971” (Ph.D. diss. Duke University, 1998), 236-66;
117. Dean J. Kotlowski, Nixon's Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge, Mass. 2001), 97–124;
118. Thomas J. Sugrue, “The Tangled Roots of Affirmative Action,” American Behavioral Scientist 41, no. 7 (April 1998): 886-97.
119. Walter D’Alessio, “Memo To: Alec Bastos; Subject: Possible Projects for the Expenditure of Model Cities Economic Development,” 7 May 1973, Mayor's Files 1973, RG 60-2.6
120. PIDC, “Proposed Industrial Development Projects of Direct Benefit to Residents of Model Cities,” 1 August 1973, Mayor's Files 1973.
121. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992 Census of Manufacturers—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C. 1994), PA-63;
122. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992 Census of Wholesale Trade—Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C.:, October 1994), PA-49—50.
123. Sbragia, Debt Wish, 163–79;
124. A. Joseph Newman Jr. “Battle Lines Forming Here over Industrial Financing,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 6 June 1966.
125. PIDC, “Taken from Minutes of Executive Committee Meeting of PIDC,” 3 August 1966, DC-ID Files.
126. PIDC, “Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Board of Directors of the PIDC,” 3 February 1967, DC-ID Files, RG 64.18, Box A- 5193, F: PIDC-Internal Revenue Service Rulings ’67, City Archives, 1-4.
127. Also, PIDC, “Taken from Minutes of Executive Committee Meeting of PIDC,” 21 March 1967, DC-ID Files
128. Joseph R. Daughen, “PIDC Is Given Permission to Process Loans,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 3 February 1967.
129. Alice O’Connor, “Swimming Against the Tide: A Brief History of Federal Policy in Poor Communities,” in William T. Dickens and Ronald F. Ferguson, eds. Urban Problems and Community Development (Washington, D.C. 1999), 103-4;
130. Michael B. Katz, The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare (New York, 1989), 91-94.
131. PIDC, “Agenda for the Board of Directors Meeting of the PIDC; … Report of Special Loan Committee,” 18 June 1968, Mayor's Files 1968
132. “State Law Lays Ground for PIDC to Reactivate Development Programs,” Greater Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce News, 7 September 1967, Phillips Papers, Acc. 527, Box 23, F: Pennjerdel— Economic Development, 1965-67, tUuA, 1,8;
133. Dorothy Byrd, “PIDC Forms New Agency to Fund Projects; Device Will Allow Continued Use of Low-Interest Loans,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 4 August 1968;
134. “State Law Lays Ground for PIDC to Reactivate Development Programs,” 8;
135. D’Alessio, “Memo To: Honorable Frank L. Rizzo, Mayor; Subject: 1972 Activity,” 10 January 1973, 2.
136. D’Alessio, “Memo To: Honorable Frank L. Rizzo, Mayor; Subject: 1972 Activity,” 10 January 1973, 2;
137. Douglas D. Gill, “City Will Woo Service Industries as PIDC Program Gets Under Way,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, 24 February 1971.
138. PIDC, Annual Reports, 1971-1976, GPM Records, Acc. 294, Box 6A, F: Garment Industry Development—1973, TUUA;
139. PIDC, “Analysis of Real Property Transactions Financed Through PIDC,” 14.
140. For pro-growth coalitions (also known as “urban growth machines”), see Mollenkopf, The Contested City;
141. John R. Logan and Harvey L. Molotch, Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1987). 63.
142. Mike Wallace, A New Deal for New York (New York, 2002), 31–46;
143. Daniel J. Luria and Joel Rogers, Metro Futures: Economic Solutions for Cities and Their Suburbs (Boston, 1999)
144. Rast, Remaking Chicago.
145. D’Alessio, interview by Phillips, 6–7.